Ur/Web: doc/manual.tex annotate

annotate doc/manual.tex @ 2031:d11a7a9c4a73

New syntactic shorthand for antiquoting subqueries

author	Adam Chlipala <adam@chlipala.net>
date	Wed, 25 Jun 2014 14:04:13 -0400
parents	afeeabdcce77
children	3d10ae22abd6

rev	line source
adamc@524	1 \documentclass{article}
adamc@554	2 \usepackage{fullpage,amsmath,amssymb,proof,url}
rmbruijn@1568	3 \usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
vshabanoff@1765	4 \usepackage{ae,aecompl}
adamc@524	5 \newcommand{\cd}[1]{\texttt{#1}}
adamc@524	6 \newcommand{\mt}[1]{\mathsf{#1}}
adamc@524	7
adamc@524	8 \newcommand{\rc}{+ \hspace{-.075in} + \;}
adamc@527	9 \newcommand{\rcut}{\; \texttt{--} \;}
adamc@527	10 \newcommand{\rcutM}{\; \texttt{---} \;}
adamc@524	11
adamc@524	12 \begin{document}
adamc@524	13
adamc@524	14 \title{The Ur/Web Manual}
adamc@524	15 \author{Adam Chlipala}
adamc@524	16
adamc@524	17 \maketitle
adamc@524	18
adamc@540	19 \tableofcontents
adamc@540	20
adamc@554	21
adamc@554	22 \section{Introduction}
adamc@554	23
adam@1797	24 \emph{Ur} is a programming language designed to introduce richer type system features into functional programming in the tradition of ML and Haskell. Ur is functional, pure, statically typed, and strict. Ur supports a powerful kind of \emph{metaprogramming} based on \emph{type-level computation with type-level records}.
adamc@554	25
adamc@554	26 \emph{Ur/Web} is Ur plus a special standard library and associated rules for parsing and optimization. Ur/Web supports construction of dynamic web applications backed by SQL databases. The signature of the standard library is such that well-typed Ur/Web programs ``don't go wrong'' in a very broad sense. Not only do they not crash during particular page generations, but they also may not:
adamc@554	27
adamc@554	28 \begin{itemize}
adamc@554	29 \item Suffer from any kinds of code-injection attacks
adamc@554	30 \item Return invalid HTML
adamc@554	31 \item Contain dead intra-application links
adamc@554	32 \item Have mismatches between HTML forms and the fields expected by their handlers
adamc@652	33 \item Include client-side code that makes incorrect assumptions about the ``AJAX''-style services that the remote web server provides
adamc@554	34 \item Attempt invalid SQL queries
adamc@652	35 \item Use improper marshaling or unmarshaling in communication with SQL databases or between browsers and web servers
adamc@554	36 \end{itemize}
adamc@554	37
adamc@554	38 This type safety is just the foundation of the Ur/Web methodology. It is also possible to use metaprogramming to build significant application pieces by analysis of type structure. For instance, the demo includes an ML-style functor for building an admin interface for an arbitrary SQL table. The type system guarantees that the admin interface sub-application that comes out will always be free of the above-listed bugs, no matter which well-typed table description is given as input.
adamc@554	39
adamc@652	40 The Ur/Web compiler also produces very efficient object code that does not use garbage collection. These compiled programs will often be even more efficient than what most programmers would bother to write in C. The compiler also generates JavaScript versions of client-side code, with no need to write those parts of applications in a different language.
adamc@554	41
adamc@554	42 \medskip
adamc@554	43
adamc@554	44 The official web site for Ur is:
adamc@554	45 \begin{center}
adamc@554	46 \url{http://www.impredicative.com/ur/}
adamc@554	47 \end{center}
adamc@554	48
adamc@555	49
adamc@555	50 \section{Installation}
adamc@555	51
adamc@555	52 If you are lucky, then the following standard command sequence will suffice for installation, in a directory to which you have unpacked the latest distribution tarball.
adamc@555	53
adamc@555	54 \begin{verbatim}
adamc@555	55 ./configure
adamc@555	56 make
adamc@555	57 sudo make install
adamc@555	58 \end{verbatim}
adamc@555	59
adam@1523	60 Some other packages must be installed for the above to work. At a minimum, you need a standard UNIX shell, with standard UNIX tools like sed and GCC (or an alternate C compiler) in your execution path; MLton, the whole-program optimizing compiler for Standard ML; and the development files for the OpenSSL C library. As of this writing, in the ``testing'' version of Debian Linux, this command will install the more uncommon of these dependencies:
adamc@896	61 \begin{verbatim}
adam@1368	62 apt-get install mlton libssl-dev
adamc@896	63 \end{verbatim}
adamc@555	64
adam@2016	65 Note that, like the Ur/Web compiler, MLton is a whole-program optimizing compiler, so it frequently requires much more memory than old-fashioned compilers do. Expect building Ur/Web with MLton to require not much less than a gigabyte of RAM. If a \texttt{mlton} invocation ends suspiciously, the most likely explanation is that it has exhausted available memory.
adam@2016	66
adamc@896	67 To build programs that access SQL databases, you also need one of these client libraries for supported backends.
adamc@555	68 \begin{verbatim}
adam@1960	69 apt-get install libpq-dev libmysqlclient-dev libsqlite3-dev
adamc@555	70 \end{verbatim}
adamc@555	71
adamc@555	72 It is also possible to access the modules of the Ur/Web compiler interactively, within Standard ML of New Jersey. To install the prerequisites in Debian testing:
adamc@555	73 \begin{verbatim}
adamc@555	74 apt-get install smlnj libsmlnj-smlnj ml-yacc ml-lpt
adamc@555	75 \end{verbatim}
adamc@555	76
adam@2016	77 To begin an interactive session with the Ur compiler modules, run \texttt{make smlnj}, and then, from within an \texttt{sml} session, run \texttt{CM.make "src/urweb.cm";}. The \texttt{Compiler} module is the main entry point, and you can find its signature in \texttt{src/compiler.sig}.
adamc@555	78
adamc@896	79 To run an SQL-backed application with a backend besides SQLite, you will probably want to install one of these servers.
adamc@555	80
adamc@555	81 \begin{verbatim}
adam@1960	82 apt-get install postgresql mysql-server
adamc@555	83 \end{verbatim}
adamc@555	84
adamc@555	85 To use the Emacs mode, you must have a modern Emacs installed. We assume that you already know how to do this, if you're in the business of looking for an Emacs mode. The demo generation facility of the compiler will also call out to Emacs to syntax-highlight code, and that process depends on the \texttt{htmlize} module, which can be installed in Debian testing via:
adamc@555	86
adamc@555	87 \begin{verbatim}
adamc@555	88 apt-get install emacs-goodies-el
adamc@555	89 \end{verbatim}
adamc@555	90
adam@1441	91 If you don't want to install the Emacs mode, run \texttt{./configure} with the argument \texttt{--without-emacs}.
adam@1441	92
adam@1523	93 Even with the right packages installed, configuration and building might fail to work. After you run \texttt{./configure}, you will see the values of some named environment variables printed. You may need to adjust these values to get proper installation for your system. To change a value, store your preferred alternative in the corresponding UNIX environment variable, before running \texttt{./configure}. For instance, here is how to change the list of extra arguments that the Ur/Web compiler will pass to the C compiler and linker on every invocation. Some older GCC versions need this setting to mask a bug in function inlining.
adamc@555	94
adamc@555	95 \begin{verbatim}
adam@1523	96 CCARGS=-fno-inline ./configure
adamc@555	97 \end{verbatim}
adamc@555	98
adam@1523	99 Since the author is still getting a handle on the GNU Autotools that provide the build system, you may need to do some further work to get started, especially in environments with significant differences from Linux (where most testing is done). The variables \texttt{PGHEADER}, \texttt{MSHEADER}, and \texttt{SQHEADER} may be used to set the proper C header files to include for the development libraries of PostgreSQL, MySQL, and SQLite, respectively. To get libpq to link, one OS X user reported setting \texttt{CCARGS="-I/opt/local/include -L/opt/local/lib/postgresql84"}, after creating a symbolic link with \texttt{ln -s /opt/local/include/postgresql84 /opt/local/include/postgresql}.
adamc@555	100
adamc@555	101 The Emacs mode can be set to autoload by adding the following to your \texttt{.emacs} file.
adamc@555	102
adamc@555	103 \begin{verbatim}
adamc@555	104 (add-to-list 'load-path "/usr/local/share/emacs/site-lisp/urweb-mode")
adamc@555	105 (load "urweb-mode-startup")
adamc@555	106 \end{verbatim}
adamc@555	107
adamc@555	108 Change the path in the first line if you chose a different Emacs installation path during configuration.
adamc@555	109
adamc@555	110
adamc@556	111 \section{Command-Line Compiler}
adamc@556	112
adam@1604	113 \subsection{\label{cl}Project Files}
adamc@556	114
adamc@556	115 The basic inputs to the \texttt{urweb} compiler are project files, which have the extension \texttt{.urp}. Here is a sample \texttt{.urp} file.
adamc@556	116
adamc@556	117 \begin{verbatim}
adamc@556	118 database dbname=test
adamc@556	119 sql crud1.sql
adamc@556	120
adamc@556	121 crud
adamc@556	122 crud1
adamc@556	123 \end{verbatim}
adamc@556	124
adamc@556	125 The \texttt{database} line gives the database information string to pass to libpq. In this case, the string only says to connect to a local database named \texttt{test}.
adamc@556	126
adamc@556	127 The \texttt{sql} line asks for an SQL source file to be generated, giving the commands to run to create the tables and sequences that this application expects to find. After building this \texttt{.urp} file, the following commands could be used to initialize the database, assuming that the current UNIX user exists as a Postgres user with database creation privileges:
adamc@556	128
adamc@556	129 \begin{verbatim}
adamc@556	130 createdb test
adamc@556	131 psql -f crud1.sql test
adamc@556	132 \end{verbatim}
adamc@556	133
adam@1331	134 A blank line separates the named directives from a list of modules to include in the project. Any line may contain a shell-script-style comment, where any suffix of a line starting at a hash character \texttt{\#} is ignored.
adamc@556	135
adamc@556	136 For each entry \texttt{M} in the module list, the file \texttt{M.urs} is included in the project if it exists, and the file \texttt{M.ur} must exist and is always included.
adamc@556	137
adamc@783	138 Here is the complete list of directive forms. ``FFI'' stands for ``foreign function interface,'' Ur's facility for interaction between Ur programs and C and JavaScript libraries.
adamc@783	139 \begin{itemize}
adam@1799	140 \item \texttt{[allow\|deny] [url\|mime\|requestHeader\|responseHeader\|env] PATTERN} registers a rule governing which URLs, MIME types, HTTP request headers, HTTP response headers, or environment variable names are allowed to appear explicitly in this application. The first such rule to match a name determines the verdict. If \texttt{PATTERN} ends in \texttt{*}, it is interpreted as a prefix rule. Otherwise, a string must match it exactly.
adam@1400	141 \item \texttt{alwaysInline PATH} requests that every call to the referenced function be inlined. Section \ref{structure} explains how functions are assigned path strings.
adam@1462	142 \item \texttt{benignEffectful Module.ident} registers an FFI function or transaction as having side effects. The optimizer avoids removing, moving, or duplicating calls to such functions. Every effectful FFI function must be registered, or the optimizer may make invalid transformations. This version of the \texttt{effectful} directive registers that this function only has side effects that remain local to a single page generation.
adamc@783	143 \item \texttt{clientOnly Module.ident} registers an FFI function or transaction that may only be run in client browsers.
adam@1881	144 \item \texttt{clientToServer Module.ident} adds FFI type \texttt{Module.ident} to the list of types that are OK to marshal from clients to servers. Values like XML trees and SQL queries are hard to marshal without introducing expensive validity checks, so it's easier to ensure that the server never trusts clients to send such values. The file \texttt{include/urweb/urweb\_cpp.h} shows examples of the C support functions that are required of any type that may be marshalled. These include \texttt{attrify}, \texttt{urlify}, and \texttt{unurlify} functions.
adam@1816	145 \item \texttt{coreInline TREESIZE} sets how many nodes the AST of a function definition may have before the optimizer stops trying hard to inline calls to that function. (This is one of two options for one of two intermediate languages within the compiler.)
adamc@783	146 \item \texttt{database DBSTRING} sets the string to pass to libpq to open a database connection.
adamc@783	147 \item \texttt{debug} saves some intermediate C files, which is mostly useful to help in debugging the compiler itself.
adam@1878	148 \item \texttt{effectful Module.ident} registers an FFI function or transaction as having side effects. The optimizer avoids removing, moving, or duplicating calls to such functions. This is the default behavior for \texttt{transaction}-based types.
adamc@783	149 \item \texttt{exe FILENAME} sets the filename to which to write the output executable. The default for file \texttt{P.urp} is \texttt{P.exe}.
adam@1881	150 \item \texttt{ffi FILENAME} reads the file \texttt{FILENAME.urs} to determine the interface to a new FFI module. The name of the module is calculated from \texttt{FILENAME} in the same way as for normal source files. See the files \texttt{include/urweb/urweb\_cpp.h} and \texttt{src/c/urweb.c} for examples of C headers and implementations for FFI modules. In general, every type or value \texttt{Module.ident} becomes \texttt{uw\_Module\_ident} in C.
adam@1956	151 \item \texttt{html5} activates work-in-progress support for generating HTML5 instead of XHTML. For now, this option only affects the first few tokens on any page, which are always the same.
adamc@1099	152 \item \texttt{include FILENAME} adds \texttt{FILENAME} to the list of files to be \texttt{\#include}d in C sources. This is most useful for interfacing with new FFI modules.
adamc@783	153 \item \texttt{jsFunc Module.ident=name} gives the JavaScript name of an FFI value.
adamc@1089	154 \item \texttt{library FILENAME} parses \texttt{FILENAME.urp} and merges its contents with the rest of the current file's contents. If \texttt{FILENAME.urp} doesn't exist, the compiler also tries \texttt{FILENAME/lib.urp}.
adam@1309	155 \item \texttt{limit class num} sets a resource usage limit for generated applications. The limit \texttt{class} will be set to the non-negative integer \texttt{num}. The classes are:
adam@1309	156 \begin{itemize}
adam@1309	157 \item \texttt{cleanup}: maximum number of cleanup operations (e.g., entries recording the need to deallocate certain temporary objects) that may be active at once per request
adam@1850	158 \item \texttt{clients}: maximum number of simultaneous connections to one application by web clients waiting for new asynchronous messages sent with \texttt{Basis.send}
adam@1850	159 \item \texttt{database}: maximum size of a database file (currently only used by SQLite, which interprets the parameter as a number of pages, where page size is itself a quantity configurable in SQLite)
adam@1309	160 \item \texttt{deltas}: maximum number of messages sendable in a single request handler with \texttt{Basis.send}
adam@1309	161 \item \texttt{globals}: maximum number of global variables that FFI libraries may set in a single request context
adam@1309	162 \item \texttt{headers}: maximum size (in bytes) of per-request buffer used to hold HTTP headers for generated pages
adam@1797	163 \item \texttt{heap}: maximum size (in bytes) of per-request heap for dynamically allocated data
adam@1309	164 \item \texttt{inputs}: maximum number of top-level form fields per request
adam@1309	165 \item \texttt{messages}: maximum size (in bytes) of per-request buffer used to hold a single outgoing message sent with \texttt{Basis.send}
adam@1309	166 \item \texttt{page}: maximum size (in bytes) of per-request buffer used to hold HTML content of generated pages
adam@1309	167 \item \texttt{script}: maximum size (in bytes) of per-request buffer used to hold JavaScript content of generated pages
adam@1309	168 \item \texttt{subinputs}: maximum number of form fields per request, excluding top-level fields
adam@1309	169 \item \texttt{time}: maximum running time of a single page request, in units of approximately 0.1 seconds
adam@1309	170 \item \texttt{transactionals}: maximum number of custom transactional actions (e.g., sending an e-mail) that may be run in a single page generation
adam@1309	171 \end{itemize}
adam@1523	172 \item \texttt{link FILENAME} adds \texttt{FILENAME} to the list of files to be passed to the linker at the end of compilation. This is most useful for importing extra libraries needed by new FFI modules.
adam@1725	173 \item \texttt{linker CMD} sets \texttt{CMD} as the command line prefix to use for linking C object files. The command line will be completed with a space-separated list of \texttt{.o} and \texttt{.a} files, \texttt{-L} and \texttt{-l} flags, and finally with a \texttt{-o} flag to set the location where the executable should be written.
adam@1332	174 \item \texttt{minHeap NUMBYTES} sets the initial size for thread-local heaps used in handling requests. These heaps grow automatically as needed (up to any maximum set with \texttt{limit}), but each regrow requires restarting the request handling process.
adam@1816	175 \item \texttt{monoInline TREESIZE} sets how many nodes the AST of a function definition may have before the optimizer stops trying hard to inline calls to that function. (This is one of two options for one of two intermediate languages within the compiler.)
adam@1966	176 \item \texttt{neverInline PATH} requests that no call to the referenced function be inlined. Section \ref{structure} explains how functions are assigned path strings.
adam@1953	177 \item \texttt{noMangleSql} avoids adding a \texttt{uw\_} prefix in front of each identifier in SQL. With this experimental feature, the burden is on the programmer to avoid naming tables or columns after SQL keywords!
adam@1478	178 \item \texttt{noXsrfProtection URIPREFIX} turns off automatic cross-site request forgery protection for the page handler identified by the given URI prefix. This will avoid checking cryptographic signatures on cookies, which is generally a reasonable idea for some pages, such as login pages that are going to discard all old cookie values, anyway.
adam@1297	179 \item \texttt{onError Module.var} changes the handling of fatal application errors. Instead of displaying a default, ugly error 500 page, the error page will be generated by calling function \texttt{Module.var} on a piece of XML representing the error message. The error handler should have type $\mt{xbody} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{page}$. Note that the error handler \emph{cannot} be in the application's main module, since that would register it as explicitly callable via URLs.
adamc@852	180 \item \texttt{path NAME=VALUE} creates a mapping from \texttt{NAME} to \texttt{VALUE}. This mapping may be used at the beginnings of filesystem paths given to various other configuration directives. A path like \texttt{\$NAME/rest} is expanded to \texttt{VALUE/rest}. There is an initial mapping from the empty name (for paths like \texttt{\$/list}) to the directory where the Ur/Web standard library is installed. If you accept the default \texttt{configure} options, this directory is \texttt{/usr/local/lib/urweb/ur}.
adamc@783	181 \item \texttt{prefix PREFIX} sets the prefix included before every URI within the generated application. The default is \texttt{/}.
adamc@783	182 \item \texttt{profile} generates an executable that may be used with gprof.
adam@1752	183 \item \texttt{rewrite KIND FROM TO} gives a rule for rewriting canonical module paths. For instance, the canonical path of a page may be \texttt{Mod1.Mod2.mypage}, while you would rather the page were accessed via a URL containing only \texttt{page}. The directive \texttt{rewrite url Mod1/Mod2/mypage page} would accomplish that. The possible values of \texttt{KIND} determine which kinds of objects are affected. The kind \texttt{all} matches any object, and \texttt{url} matches page URLs. The kinds \texttt{table}, \texttt{sequence}, and \texttt{view} match those sorts of SQL entities, and \texttt{relation} matches any of those three. \texttt{cookie} matches HTTP cookies, and \texttt{style} matches CSS class names. If \texttt{FROM} ends in \texttt{/}, it is interpreted as a prefix matching rule, and rewriting occurs by replacing only the appropriate prefix of a path with \texttt{TO}. The \texttt{TO} field may be left empty to express the idea of deleting a prefix. For instance, \texttt{rewrite url Main/} will strip all \texttt{Main/} prefixes from URLs. While the actual external names of relations and styles have parts separated by underscores instead of slashes, all rewrite rules must be written in terms of slashes. An optional suffix of \cd{[-]} for a \cd{rewrite} directive asks to additionally replace all \cd{\_} characters with \cd{-} characters, which can be handy for, e.g., interfacing with an off-the-shelf CSS library that prefers hyphens over underscores.
adamc@1183	184 \item \texttt{safeGet URI} asks to allow the page handler assigned this canonical URI prefix to cause persistent side effects, even if accessed via an HTTP \cd{GET} request.
adamc@783	185 \item \texttt{script URL} adds \texttt{URL} to the list of extra JavaScript files to be included at the beginning of any page that uses JavaScript. This is most useful for importing JavaScript versions of functions found in new FFI modules.
adamc@783	186 \item \texttt{serverOnly Module.ident} registers an FFI function or transaction that may only be run on the server.
adamc@1164	187 \item \texttt{sigfile PATH} sets a path where your application should look for a key to use in cryptographic signing. This is used to prevent cross-site request forgery attacks for any form handler that both reads a cookie and creates side effects. If the referenced file doesn't exist, an application will create it and read its saved data on future invocations. You can also initialize the file manually with any contents at least 16 bytes long; the first 16 bytes will be treated as the key.
adamc@783	188 \item \texttt{sql FILENAME} sets where to write an SQL file with the commands to create the expected database schema. The default is not to create such a file.
adam@1629	189 \item \texttt{timeFormat FMT} accepts a time format string, as processed by the POSIX C function \texttt{strftime()}. This controls the default rendering of $\mt{time}$ values, via the $\mt{show}$ instance for $\mt{time}$.
adamc@783	190 \item \texttt{timeout N} sets to \texttt{N} seconds the amount of time that the generated server will wait after the last contact from a client before determining that that client has exited the application. Clients that remain active will take the timeout setting into account in determining how often to ping the server, so it only makes sense to set a high timeout to cope with browser and network delays and failures. Higher timeouts can lead to more unnecessary client information taking up memory on the server. The timeout goes unused by any page that doesn't involve the \texttt{recv} function, since the server only needs to store per-client information for clients that receive asynchronous messages.
adamc@783	191 \end{itemize}
adamc@701	192
adamc@701	193
adamc@557	194 \subsection{Building an Application}
adamc@557	195
adamc@557	196 To compile project \texttt{P.urp}, simply run
adamc@557	197 \begin{verbatim}
adamc@557	198 urweb P
adamc@557	199 \end{verbatim}
adamc@1198	200 The output executable is a standalone web server. Run it with the command-line argument \texttt{-h} to see which options it takes. If the project file lists a database, the web server will attempt to connect to that database on startup. See Section \ref{structure} for an explanation of the URI mapping convention, which determines how each page of your application may be accessed via URLs.
adamc@557	201
adamc@557	202 To time how long the different compiler phases run, without generating an executable, run
adamc@557	203 \begin{verbatim}
adamc@557	204 urweb -timing P
adamc@557	205 \end{verbatim}
adamc@557	206
adamc@1086	207 To stop the compilation process after type-checking, run
adamc@1086	208 \begin{verbatim}
adamc@1086	209 urweb -tc P
adamc@1086	210 \end{verbatim}
adam@1530	211 It is often worthwhile to run \cd{urweb} in this mode, because later phases of compilation can take significantly longer than type-checking alone, and the type checker catches many errors that would traditionally be found through debugging a running application.
adamc@1086	212
adam@1745	213 A related option is \cd{-dumpTypes}, which, as long as parsing succeeds, outputs to stdout a summary of the kinds of all identifiers declared with \cd{con} and the types of all identifiers declared with \cd{val} or \cd{val rec}. This information is dumped even if there are errors during type inference. Compiler error messages go to stderr, not stdout, so it is easy to distinguish the two kinds of output programmatically. A refined version of this option is \cd{-dumpTypesOnError}, which only has an effect when there are compilation errors.
adam@1531	214
adam@1723	215 It may be useful to combine another option \cd{-unifyMore} with \cd{-dumpTypes}. Ur/Web type inference proceeds in a series of stages, where the first is standard Hindley-Milner type inference as in ML, and the later phases add more complex aspects. By default, an error detected in one phase cuts off the execution of later phases. However, the later phases might still determine more values of unification variables. These value choices might be ``misguided,'' since earlier phases have not come up with reasonable types at a coarser detail level; but the unification decisions may still be useful for debugging and program understanding. So, if a run with \cd{-dumpTypes} leaves unification variables undetermined in positions where you would like to see best-effort guesses instead, consider \cd{-unifyMore}. Note that \cd{-unifyMore} has no effect when type inference succeeds fully, but it may lead to many more error messages when inference fails.
adam@1723	216
adamc@1170	217 To output information relevant to CSS stylesheets (and not finish regular compilation), run
adamc@1170	218 \begin{verbatim}
adamc@1170	219 urweb -css P
adamc@1170	220 \end{verbatim}
adamc@1170	221 The first output line is a list of categories of CSS properties that would be worth setting on the document body. The remaining lines are space-separated pairs of CSS class names and categories of properties that would be worth setting for that class. The category codes are divided into two varieties. Codes that reveal properties of a tag or its (recursive) children are \cd{B} for block-level elements, \cd{C} for table captions, \cd{D} for table cells, \cd{L} for lists, and \cd{T} for tables. Codes that reveal properties of the precise tag that uses a class are \cd{b} for block-level elements, \cd{t} for tables, \cd{d} for table cells, \cd{-} for table rows, \cd{H} for the possibility to set a height, \cd{N} for non-replaced inline-level elements, \cd{R} for replaced inline elements, and \cd{W} for the possibility to set a width.
adamc@1170	222
adam@1733	223 Ur/Web type inference can take a significant amount of time, so it can be helpful to cache type-inferred versions of source files. This mode can be activated by running
adam@1733	224 \begin{verbatim}
adam@1733	225 urweb daemon start
adam@1733	226 \end{verbatim}
adam@1733	227 Further \cd{urweb} invocations in the same working directory will send requests to a background daemon process that reuses type inference results whenever possible, tracking source file dependencies and modification times. To stop the background daemon, run
adam@1733	228 \begin{verbatim}
adam@1733	229 urweb daemon stop
adam@1733	230 \end{verbatim}
adam@1733	231 Communication happens via a UNIX domain socket in file \cd{.urweb\_daemon} in the working directory.
adam@1733	232
adam@1733	233 \medskip
adam@1733	234
adamc@896	235 Some other command-line parameters are accepted:
adamc@896	236 \begin{itemize}
ezyang@1739	237 \item \texttt{-boot}: Run Ur/Web from a build tree (and not from a system install). This is useful if you're testing the compiler and don't want to install it. It forces generation of statically linked executables.
ezyang@1739	238
adam@1875	239 \item \texttt{-ccompiler <PROGRAM>}: Select an alternative C compiler to call with command lines in compiling Ur/Web applications. (It's possible to set the default compiler as part of the \texttt{configure} process, but it may sometimes be useful to override the default.)
adam@1875	240
adamc@896	241 \item \texttt{-db <DBSTRING>}: Set database connection information, using the format expected by Postgres's \texttt{PQconnectdb()}, which is \texttt{name1=value1 ... nameN=valueN}. The same format is also parsed and used to discover connection parameters for MySQL and SQLite. The only significant settings for MySQL are \texttt{host}, \texttt{hostaddr}, \texttt{port}, \texttt{dbname}, \texttt{user}, and \texttt{password}. The only significant setting for SQLite is \texttt{dbname}, which is interpreted as the filesystem path to the database. Additionally, when using SQLite, a database string may be just a file path.
adamc@896	242
adamc@896	243 \item \texttt{-dbms [postgres\|mysql\|sqlite]}: Sets the database backend to use.
adamc@896	244 \begin{itemize}
adamc@896	245 \item \texttt{postgres}: This is PostgreSQL, the default. Among the supported engines, Postgres best matches the design philosophy behind Ur, with a focus on consistent views of data, even in the face of much concurrency. Different database engines have different quirks of SQL syntax. Ur/Web tends to use Postgres idioms where there are choices to be made, though the compiler translates SQL as needed to support other backends.
adamc@896	246
adamc@896	247 A command sequence like this can initialize a Postgres database, using a file \texttt{app.sql} generated by the compiler:
adamc@896	248 \begin{verbatim}
adamc@896	249 createdb app
adamc@896	250 psql -f app.sql app
adamc@896	251 \end{verbatim}
adamc@896	252
adamc@896	253 \item \texttt{mysql}: This is MySQL, another popular relational database engine that uses persistent server processes. Ur/Web needs transactions to function properly. Many installations of MySQL use non-transactional storage engines by default. Ur/Web generates table definitions that try to use MySQL's InnoDB engine, which supports transactions. You can edit the first line of a generated \texttt{.sql} file to change this behavior, but it really is true that Ur/Web applications will exhibit bizarre behavior if you choose an engine that ignores transaction commands.
adamc@896	254
adamc@896	255 A command sequence like this can initialize a MySQL database:
adamc@896	256 \begin{verbatim}
adamc@896	257 echo "CREATE DATABASE app" \| mysql
adamc@896	258 mysql -D app <app.sql
adamc@896	259 \end{verbatim}
adamc@896	260
adamc@896	261 \item \texttt{sqlite}: This is SQLite, a simple filesystem-based transactional database engine. With this backend, Ur/Web applications can run without any additional server processes. The other engines are generally preferred for large-workload performance and full admin feature sets, while SQLite is popular for its low resource footprint and ease of set-up.
adamc@896	262
adamc@896	263 A command like this can initialize an SQLite database:
adamc@896	264 \begin{verbatim}
adamc@896	265 sqlite3 path/to/database/file <app.sql
adamc@896	266 \end{verbatim}
adamc@896	267 \end{itemize}
adamc@896	268
adam@1693	269 \item \texttt{-dumpSource}: When compilation fails, output to stderr the complete source code of the last intermediate program before the compilation phase that signaled the error. (Warning: these outputs can be very long and aren't especially optimized for readability!)
adam@1693	270
adam@1995	271 \item \texttt{-explainEmbed}: Trigger more verbose error messages about inability to embed server-side values in client-side code.
adam@1995	272
adam@1309	273 \item \texttt{-limit class num}: Equivalent to the \texttt{limit} directive from \texttt{.urp} files
adam@1309	274
adam@1850	275 \item \texttt{-moduleOf FILENAME}: Prints the Ur/Web module name corresponding to source file \texttt{FILENAME}, exiting immediately afterward.
adam@1850	276
adamc@896	277 \item \texttt{-output FILENAME}: Set where the application executable is written.
adamc@896	278
adamc@1127	279 \item \texttt{-path NAME VALUE}: Set the value of path variable \texttt{\$NAME} to \texttt{VALUE}, for use in \texttt{.urp} files.
adamc@1127	280
adam@1335	281 \item \texttt{-prefix PREFIX}: Equivalent to the \texttt{prefix} directive from \texttt{.urp} files
adam@1335	282
adam@1875	283 \item \texttt{-print-ccompiler}: Print the C compiler being used.
adam@1875	284
adam@1923	285 \item \texttt{-print-cinclude}: Print the name of the directory where C/C++ header files are installed.
adam@1923	286
adam@1753	287 \item \texttt{-protocol [http\|cgi\|fastcgi\|static]}: Set the protocol that the generated application speaks.
adamc@896	288 \begin{itemize}
adamc@896	289 \item \texttt{http}: This is the default. It is for building standalone web servers that can be accessed by web browsers directly.
adamc@896	290
adamc@896	291 \item \texttt{cgi}: This is the classic protocol that web servers use to generate dynamic content by spawning new processes. While Ur/Web programs may in general use message-passing with the \texttt{send} and \texttt{recv} functions, that functionality is not yet supported in CGI, since CGI needs a fresh process for each request, and message-passing needs to use persistent sockets to deliver messages.
adamc@896	292
adamc@896	293 Since Ur/Web treats paths in an unusual way, a configuration line like this one can be used to configure an application that was built with URL prefix \texttt{/Hello}:
adamc@896	294 \begin{verbatim}
adamc@896	295 ScriptAlias /Hello /path/to/hello.exe
adamc@896	296 \end{verbatim}
adamc@896	297
adamc@1163	298 A different method can be used for, e.g., a shared host, where you can only configure Apache via \texttt{.htaccess} files. Drop the generated executable into your web space and mark it as CGI somehow. For instance, if the script ends in \texttt{.exe}, you might put this in \texttt{.htaccess} in the directory containing the script:
adamc@1163	299 \begin{verbatim}
adamc@1163	300 Options +ExecCGI
adamc@1163	301 AddHandler cgi-script .exe
adamc@1163	302 \end{verbatim}
adamc@1163	303
adamc@1163	304 Additionally, make sure that Ur/Web knows the proper URI prefix for your script. For instance, if the script is accessed via \texttt{http://somewhere/dir/script.exe}, then include this line in your \texttt{.urp} file:
adamc@1163	305 \begin{verbatim}
adamc@1163	306 prefix /dir/script.exe/
adamc@1163	307 \end{verbatim}
adamc@1163	308
adamc@1163	309 To access the \texttt{foo} function in the \texttt{Bar} module, you would then hit \texttt{http://somewhere/dir/script.exe/Bar/foo}.
adamc@1163	310
adamc@1164	311 If your application contains form handlers that read cookies before causing side effects, then you will need to use the \texttt{sigfile} \texttt{.urp} directive, too.
adamc@1164	312
adamc@896	313 \item \texttt{fastcgi}: This is a newer protocol inspired by CGI, wherein web servers can start and reuse persistent external processes to generate dynamic content. Ur/Web doesn't implement the whole protocol, but Ur/Web's support has been tested to work with the \texttt{mod\_fastcgi}s of Apache and lighttpd.
adamc@896	314
adamc@896	315 To configure a FastCGI program with Apache, one could combine the above \texttt{ScriptAlias} line with a line like this:
adamc@896	316 \begin{verbatim}
adamc@896	317 FastCgiServer /path/to/hello.exe -idle-timeout 99999
adamc@896	318 \end{verbatim}
adamc@896	319 The idle timeout is only important for applications that use message-passing. Client connections may go long periods without receiving messages, and Apache tries to be helpful and garbage collect them in such cases. To prevent that behavior, we specify how long a connection must be idle to be collected.
adamc@896	320
adam@1753	321 Also see the discussion of the \cd{prefix} directive for CGI above; similar configuration is likely to be necessary for FastCGI. An Ur/Web application won't generally run correctly if it doesn't have a unique URI prefix assigned to it and configured with \cd{prefix}.
adam@1753	322
adamc@896	323 Here is some lighttpd configuration for the same application.
adamc@896	324 \begin{verbatim}
adamc@896	325 fastcgi.server = (
adamc@896	326 "/Hello/" =>
adamc@896	327 (( "bin-path" => "/path/to/hello.exe",
adamc@896	328 "socket" => "/tmp/hello",
adamc@896	329 "check-local" => "disable",
adamc@896	330 "docroot" => "/",
adamc@896	331 "max-procs" => "1"
adamc@896	332 ))
adamc@896	333 )
adamc@896	334 \end{verbatim}
adamc@896	335 The least obvious requirement is setting \texttt{max-procs} to 1, so that lighttpd doesn't try to multiplex requests across multiple external processes. This is required for message-passing applications, where a single database of client connections is maintained within a multi-threaded server process. Multiple processes may, however, be used safely with applications that don't use message-passing.
adamc@896	336
adamc@896	337 A FastCGI process reads the environment variable \texttt{URWEB\_NUM\_THREADS} to determine how many threads to spawn for handling client requests. The default is 1.
adam@1509	338
adam@1509	339 \item \texttt{static}: This protocol may be used to generate static web pages from Ur/Web code. The output executable expects a single command-line argument, giving the URI of a page to generate. For instance, this argument might be \cd{/main}, in which case a static HTTP response for that page will be written to stdout.
adamc@896	340 \end{itemize}
adamc@896	341
adamc@1127	342 \item \texttt{-root Name PATH}: Trigger an alternate module convention for all source files found in directory \texttt{PATH} or any of its subdirectories. Any file \texttt{PATH/foo.ur} defines a module \texttt{Name.Foo} instead of the usual \texttt{Foo}. Any file \texttt{PATH/subdir/foo.ur} defines a module \texttt{Name.Subdir.Foo}, and so on for arbitrary nesting of subdirectories.
adamc@1127	343
adamc@1164	344 \item \texttt{-sigfile PATH}: Same as the \texttt{sigfile} directive in \texttt{.urp} files
adamc@1164	345
adamc@896	346 \item \texttt{-sql FILENAME}: Set where a database set-up SQL script is written.
adamc@1095	347
adamc@1095	348 \item \texttt{-static}: Link the runtime system statically. The default is to link against dynamic libraries.
adam@1961	349
adam@1961	350 \item \texttt{-stop PHASE}: Stop compilation after the named phase, printing the intermediate program to stderr. This flag is mainly useful for debugging the Ur/Web compiler itself.
adamc@896	351 \end{itemize}
adamc@896	352
adam@1297	353 There is an additional convenience method for invoking \texttt{urweb}. If the main argument is \texttt{FOO}, and \texttt{FOO.ur} exists but \texttt{FOO.urp} doesn't, then the invocation is interpreted as if called on a \texttt{.urp} file containing \texttt{FOO} as its only main entry, with an additional \texttt{rewrite all FOO/*} directive.
adamc@556	354
adam@1509	355 \subsection{Tutorial Formatting}
adam@1509	356
adam@1509	357 The Ur/Web compiler also supports rendering of nice HTML tutorials from Ur source files, when invoked like \cd{urweb -tutorial DIR}. The directory \cd{DIR} is examined for files whose names end in \cd{.ur}. Every such file is translated into a \cd{.html} version.
adam@1509	358
adam@1509	359 These input files follow normal Ur syntax, with a few exceptions:
adam@1509	360 \begin{itemize}
adam@1509	361 \item The first line must be a comment like \cd{(* TITLE *)}, where \cd{TITLE} is a string of your choice that will be used as the title of the output page.
adam@1509	362 \item While most code in the output HTML will be formatted as a monospaced code listing, text in regular Ur comments is formatted as normal English text.
adam@1509	363 \item A comment like \cd{(* * HEADING *)} introduces a section heading, with text \cd{HEADING} of your choice.
adam@1509	364 \item To include both a rendering of an Ur expression and a pretty-printed version of its value, bracket the expression with \cd{(* begin eval )} and \cd{( end *)}. The result of expression evaluation is pretty-printed with \cd{show}, so the expression type must belong to that type class.
adam@1509	365 \item To include code that should not be shown in the tutorial (e.g., to add a \cd{show} instance to use with \cd{eval}), bracket the code with \cd{(* begin hide )} and \cd{( end *)}.
adam@1509	366 \end{itemize}
adam@1509	367
adam@1509	368 A word of warning: as for demo generation, tutorial generation calls Emacs to syntax-highlight Ur code.
adam@1509	369
adam@1522	370 \subsection{Run-Time Options}
adam@1522	371
adam@1522	372 Compiled applications consult a few environment variables to modify their behavior:
adam@1522	373
adam@1522	374 \begin{itemize}
adam@1522	375 \item \cd{URWEB\_NUM\_THREADS}: alternative to the \cd{-t} command-line argument (currently used only by FastCGI)
adam@1522	376 \item \cd{URWEB\_STACK\_SIZE}: size of per-thread stacks, in bytes
as@1564	377 \item \cd{URWEB\_PQ\_CON}: when using PostgreSQL, overrides the compiled-in connection string
adam@1522	378 \end{itemize}
adam@1522	379
adam@1509	380
adamc@529	381 \section{Ur Syntax}
adamc@529	382
adamc@784	383 In this section, we describe the syntax of Ur, deferring to a later section discussion of most of the syntax specific to SQL and XML. The sole exceptions are the declaration forms for relations, cookies, and styles.
adamc@524	384
adamc@524	385 \subsection{Lexical Conventions}
adamc@524	386
adamc@524	387 We give the Ur language definition in \LaTeX $\;$ math mode, since that is prettier than monospaced ASCII. The corresponding ASCII syntax can be read off directly. Here is the key for mapping math symbols to ASCII character sequences.
adamc@524	388
adamc@524	389 \begin{center}
adamc@524	390 \begin{tabular}{rl}
adamc@524	391 \textbf{\LaTeX} & \textbf{ASCII} \\
adamc@524	392 $\to$ & \cd{->} \\
adam@1687	393 $\longrightarrow$ & \cd{-{}->} \\
adamc@524	394 $\times$ & \cd{*} \\
adamc@524	395 $\lambda$ & \cd{fn} \\
adamc@524	396 $\Rightarrow$ & \cd{=>} \\
adamc@652	397 $\Longrightarrow$ & \cd{==>} \\
adamc@529	398 $\neq$ & \cd{<>} \\
adamc@529	399 $\leq$ & \cd{<=} \\
adamc@529	400 $\geq$ & \cd{>=} \\
adamc@524	401 \\
adamc@524	402 $x$ & Normal textual identifier, not beginning with an uppercase letter \\
adamc@525	403 $X$ & Normal textual identifier, beginning with an uppercase letter \\
adamc@524	404 \end{tabular}
adamc@524	405 \end{center}
adamc@524	406
adamc@525	407 We often write syntax like $e^$ to indicate zero or more copies of $e$, $e^+$ to indicate one or more copies, and $e,^$ and $e,^+$ to indicate multiple copies separated by commas. Another separator may be used in place of a comma. The $e$ term may be surrounded by parentheses to indicate grouping; those parentheses should not be included in the actual ASCII.
adamc@524	408
adamc@873	409 We write $\ell$ for literals of the primitive types, for the most part following C conventions. There are $\mt{int}$, $\mt{float}$, $\mt{char}$, and $\mt{string}$ literals. Character literals follow the SML convention instead of the C convention, written like \texttt{\#"a"} instead of \texttt{'a'}.
adamc@526	410
adamc@527	411 This version of the manual doesn't include operator precedences; see \texttt{src/urweb.grm} for that.
adamc@527	412
adam@1297	413 As in the ML language family, the syntax \texttt{(* ... *)} is used for (nestable) comments. Within XML literals, Ur/Web also supports the usual \texttt{<!-- ... -->} XML comments.
adam@1297	414
adamc@552	415 \subsection{\label{core}Core Syntax}
adamc@524	416
adamc@524	417 \emph{Kinds} classify types and other compile-time-only entities. Each kind in the grammar is listed with a description of the sort of data it classifies.
adamc@524	418 $$\begin{array}{rrcll}
adamc@524	419 \textrm{Kinds} & \kappa &::=& \mt{Type} & \textrm{proper types} \\
adamc@525	420 &&& \mt{Unit} & \textrm{the trivial constructor} \\
adamc@525	421 &&& \mt{Name} & \textrm{field names} \\
adamc@525	422 &&& \kappa \to \kappa & \textrm{type-level functions} \\
adamc@525	423 &&& \{\kappa\} & \textrm{type-level records} \\
adamc@525	424 &&& (\kappa\times^+) & \textrm{type-level tuples} \\
adamc@652	425 &&& X & \textrm{variable} \\
adam@1574	426 &&& X \longrightarrow \kappa & \textrm{kind-polymorphic type-level function} \\
adamc@529	427 &&& \_\_ & \textrm{wildcard} \\
adamc@525	428 &&& (\kappa) & \textrm{explicit precedence} \\
adamc@524	429 \end{array}$$
adamc@524	430
adamc@524	431 Ur supports several different notions of functions that take types as arguments. These arguments can be either implicit, causing them to be inferred at use sites; or explicit, forcing them to be specified manually at use sites. There is a common explicitness annotation convention applied at the definitions of and in the types of such functions.
adamc@524	432 $$\begin{array}{rrcll}
adamc@524	433 \textrm{Explicitness} & ? &::=& :: & \textrm{explicit} \\
adamc@558	434 &&& ::: & \textrm{implicit}
adamc@524	435 \end{array}$$
adamc@524	436
adamc@524	437 \emph{Constructors} are the main class of compile-time-only data. They include proper types and are classified by kinds.
adamc@524	438 $$\begin{array}{rrcll}
adamc@524	439 \textrm{Constructors} & c, \tau &::=& (c) :: \kappa & \textrm{kind annotation} \\
adamc@530	440 &&& \hat{x} & \textrm{constructor variable} \\
adamc@524	441 \\
adamc@525	442 &&& \tau \to \tau & \textrm{function type} \\
adamc@525	443 &&& x \; ? \; \kappa \to \tau & \textrm{polymorphic function type} \\
adamc@652	444 &&& X \longrightarrow \tau & \textrm{kind-polymorphic function type} \\
adamc@525	445 &&& \$ c & \textrm{record type} \\
adamc@524	446 \\
adamc@525	447 &&& c \; c & \textrm{type-level function application} \\
adamc@530	448 &&& \lambda x \; :: \; \kappa \Rightarrow c & \textrm{type-level function abstraction} \\
adamc@524	449 \\
adamc@652	450 &&& X \Longrightarrow c & \textrm{type-level kind-polymorphic function abstraction} \\
adamc@655	451 &&& c [\kappa] & \textrm{type-level kind-polymorphic function application} \\
adamc@652	452 \\
adamc@525	453 &&& () & \textrm{type-level unit} \\
adamc@525	454 &&& \#X & \textrm{field name} \\
adamc@524	455 \\
adamc@525	456 &&& [(c = c)^*] & \textrm{known-length type-level record} \\
adamc@525	457 &&& c \rc c & \textrm{type-level record concatenation} \\
adamc@652	458 &&& \mt{map} & \textrm{type-level record map} \\
adamc@524	459 \\
adamc@558	460 &&& (c,^+) & \textrm{type-level tuple} \\
adamc@525	461 &&& c.n & \textrm{type-level tuple projection ($n \in \mathbb N^+$)} \\
adamc@524	462 \\
adamc@652	463 &&& [c \sim c] \Rightarrow \tau & \textrm{guarded type} \\
adamc@524	464 \\
adamc@529	465 &&& \_ :: \kappa & \textrm{wildcard} \\
adamc@525	466 &&& (c) & \textrm{explicit precedence} \\
adamc@530	467 \\
adamc@530	468 \textrm{Qualified uncapitalized variables} & \hat{x} &::=& x & \textrm{not from a module} \\
adamc@530	469 &&& M.x & \textrm{projection from a module} \\
adamc@525	470 \end{array}$$
adamc@525	471
adam@1579	472 We include both abstraction and application for kind polymorphism, but applications are only inferred internally; they may not be written explicitly in source programs. Also, in the ``known-length type-level record'' form, in $c_1 = c_2$ terms, the parser currently only allows $c_1$ to be of the forms $X$ (as a shorthand for $\#X$) or $x$, or a natural number to stand for the corresponding field name (e.g., for tuples).
adamc@655	473
adamc@525	474 Modules of the module system are described by \emph{signatures}.
adamc@525	475 $$\begin{array}{rrcll}
adamc@525	476 \textrm{Signatures} & S &::=& \mt{sig} \; s^* \; \mt{end} & \textrm{constant} \\
adamc@525	477 &&& X & \textrm{variable} \\
adamc@525	478 &&& \mt{functor}(X : S) : S & \textrm{functor} \\
adamc@529	479 &&& S \; \mt{where} \; \mt{con} \; x = c & \textrm{concretizing an abstract constructor} \\
adamc@525	480 &&& M.X & \textrm{projection from a module} \\
adamc@525	481 \\
adamc@525	482 \textrm{Signature items} & s &::=& \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa & \textrm{abstract constructor} \\
adamc@525	483 &&& \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa = c & \textrm{concrete constructor} \\
adamc@528	484 &&& \mt{datatype} \; x \; x^* = dc\mid^+ & \textrm{algebraic datatype definition} \\
adamc@529	485 &&& \mt{datatype} \; x = \mt{datatype} \; M.x & \textrm{algebraic datatype import} \\
adamc@525	486 &&& \mt{val} \; x : \tau & \textrm{value} \\
adamc@525	487 &&& \mt{structure} \; X : S & \textrm{sub-module} \\
adamc@525	488 &&& \mt{signature} \; X = S & \textrm{sub-signature} \\
adamc@525	489 &&& \mt{include} \; S & \textrm{signature inclusion} \\
adamc@525	490 &&& \mt{constraint} \; c \sim c & \textrm{record disjointness constraint} \\
adamc@654	491 &&& \mt{class} \; x :: \kappa & \textrm{abstract constructor class} \\
adamc@654	492 &&& \mt{class} \; x :: \kappa = c & \textrm{concrete constructor class} \\
adamc@525	493 \\
adamc@525	494 \textrm{Datatype constructors} & dc &::=& X & \textrm{nullary constructor} \\
adamc@525	495 &&& X \; \mt{of} \; \tau & \textrm{unary constructor} \\
adamc@524	496 \end{array}$$
adamc@524	497
adamc@526	498 \emph{Patterns} are used to describe structural conditions on expressions, such that expressions may be tested against patterns, generating assignments to pattern variables if successful.
adamc@526	499 $$\begin{array}{rrcll}
adamc@526	500 \textrm{Patterns} & p &::=& \_ & \textrm{wildcard} \\
adamc@526	501 &&& x & \textrm{variable} \\
adamc@526	502 &&& \ell & \textrm{constant} \\
adamc@526	503 &&& \hat{X} & \textrm{nullary constructor} \\
adamc@526	504 &&& \hat{X} \; p & \textrm{unary constructor} \\
adamc@526	505 &&& \{(x = p,)^*\} & \textrm{rigid record pattern} \\
adamc@526	506 &&& \{(x = p,)^+, \ldots\} & \textrm{flexible record pattern} \\
adamc@852	507 &&& p : \tau & \textrm{type annotation} \\
adamc@527	508 &&& (p) & \textrm{explicit precedence} \\
adamc@526	509 \\
adamc@529	510 \textrm{Qualified capitalized variables} & \hat{X} &::=& X & \textrm{not from a module} \\
adamc@526	511 &&& M.X & \textrm{projection from a module} \\
adamc@526	512 \end{array}$$
adamc@526	513
adamc@527	514 \emph{Expressions} are the main run-time entities, corresponding to both ``expressions'' and ``statements'' in mainstream imperative languages.
adamc@527	515 $$\begin{array}{rrcll}
adamc@527	516 \textrm{Expressions} & e &::=& e : \tau & \textrm{type annotation} \\
adamc@529	517 &&& \hat{x} & \textrm{variable} \\
adamc@529	518 &&& \hat{X} & \textrm{datatype constructor} \\
adamc@527	519 &&& \ell & \textrm{constant} \\
adamc@527	520 \\
adamc@527	521 &&& e \; e & \textrm{function application} \\
adamc@527	522 &&& \lambda x : \tau \Rightarrow e & \textrm{function abstraction} \\
adamc@527	523 &&& e [c] & \textrm{polymorphic function application} \\
adamc@852	524 &&& \lambda [x \; ? \; \kappa] \Rightarrow e & \textrm{polymorphic function abstraction} \\
adamc@655	525 &&& e [\kappa] & \textrm{kind-polymorphic function application} \\
adamc@652	526 &&& X \Longrightarrow e & \textrm{kind-polymorphic function abstraction} \\
adamc@527	527 \\
adamc@527	528 &&& \{(c = e,)^*\} & \textrm{known-length record} \\
adamc@527	529 &&& e.c & \textrm{record field projection} \\
adamc@527	530 &&& e \rc e & \textrm{record concatenation} \\
adamc@527	531 &&& e \rcut c & \textrm{removal of a single record field} \\
adamc@527	532 &&& e \rcutM c & \textrm{removal of multiple record fields} \\
adamc@527	533 \\
adamc@527	534 &&& \mt{let} \; ed^* \; \mt{in} \; e \; \mt{end} & \textrm{local definitions} \\
adamc@527	535 \\
adamc@527	536 &&& \mt{case} \; e \; \mt{of} \; (p \Rightarrow e\|)^+ & \textrm{pattern matching} \\
adamc@527	537 \\
adamc@654	538 &&& \lambda [c \sim c] \Rightarrow e & \textrm{guarded expression abstraction} \\
adamc@654	539 &&& e \; ! & \textrm{guarded expression application} \\
adamc@527	540 \\
adamc@527	541 &&& \_ & \textrm{wildcard} \\
adamc@527	542 &&& (e) & \textrm{explicit precedence} \\
adamc@527	543 \\
adamc@527	544 \textrm{Local declarations} & ed &::=& \cd{val} \; x : \tau = e & \textrm{non-recursive value} \\
adam@1797	545 &&& \cd{val} \; \cd{rec} \; (x : \tau = e \; \cd{and})^+ & \textrm{mutually recursive values} \\
adamc@527	546 \end{array}$$
adamc@527	547
adamc@655	548 As with constructors, we include both abstraction and application for kind polymorphism, but applications are only inferred internally.
adamc@655	549
adamc@528	550 \emph{Declarations} primarily bring new symbols into context.
adamc@528	551 $$\begin{array}{rrcll}
adamc@528	552 \textrm{Declarations} & d &::=& \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa = c & \textrm{constructor synonym} \\
adamc@528	553 &&& \mt{datatype} \; x \; x^* = dc\mid^+ & \textrm{algebraic datatype definition} \\
adamc@529	554 &&& \mt{datatype} \; x = \mt{datatype} \; M.x & \textrm{algebraic datatype import} \\
adamc@528	555 &&& \mt{val} \; x : \tau = e & \textrm{value} \\
adam@1797	556 &&& \mt{val} \; \cd{rec} \; (x : \tau = e \; \mt{and})^+ & \textrm{mutually recursive values} \\
adamc@528	557 &&& \mt{structure} \; X : S = M & \textrm{module definition} \\
adamc@528	558 &&& \mt{signature} \; X = S & \textrm{signature definition} \\
adamc@528	559 &&& \mt{open} \; M & \textrm{module inclusion} \\
adamc@528	560 &&& \mt{constraint} \; c \sim c & \textrm{record disjointness constraint} \\
adamc@528	561 &&& \mt{open} \; \mt{constraints} \; M & \textrm{inclusion of just the constraints from a module} \\
adamc@528	562 &&& \mt{table} \; x : c & \textrm{SQL table} \\
adam@1594	563 &&& \mt{view} \; x = e & \textrm{SQL view} \\
adamc@528	564 &&& \mt{sequence} \; x & \textrm{SQL sequence} \\
adamc@535	565 &&& \mt{cookie} \; x : \tau & \textrm{HTTP cookie} \\
adamc@784	566 &&& \mt{style} \; x : \tau & \textrm{CSS class} \\
adamc@1085	567 &&& \mt{task} \; e = e & \textrm{recurring task} \\
adamc@528	568 \\
adamc@529	569 \textrm{Modules} & M &::=& \mt{struct} \; d^* \; \mt{end} & \textrm{constant} \\
adamc@529	570 &&& X & \textrm{variable} \\
adamc@529	571 &&& M.X & \textrm{projection} \\
adamc@529	572 &&& M(M) & \textrm{functor application} \\
adamc@529	573 &&& \mt{functor}(X : S) : S = M & \textrm{functor abstraction} \\
adamc@528	574 \end{array}$$
adamc@528	575
adamc@528	576 There are two kinds of Ur files. A file named $M\texttt{.ur}$ is an \emph{implementation file}, and it should contain a sequence of declarations $d^$. A file named $M\texttt{.urs}$ is an \emph{interface file}; it must always have a matching $M\texttt{.ur}$ and should contain a sequence of signature items $s^$. When both files are present, the overall effect is the same as a monolithic declaration $\mt{structure} \; M : \mt{sig} \; s^* \; \mt{end} = \mt{struct} \; d^* \; \mt{end}$. When no interface file is included, the overall effect is similar, with a signature for module $M$ being inferred rather than just checked against an interface.
adamc@527	577
adam@1594	578 We omit some extra possibilities in $\mt{table}$ syntax, deferring them to Section \ref{tables}. The concrete syntax of $\mt{view}$ declarations is also more complex than shown in the table above, with details deferred to Section \ref{tables}.
adamc@784	579
adamc@529	580 \subsection{Shorthands}
adamc@529	581
adamc@529	582 There are a variety of derived syntactic forms that elaborate into the core syntax from the last subsection. We will present the additional forms roughly following the order in which we presented the constructs that they elaborate into.
adamc@529	583
adamc@529	584 In many contexts where record fields are expected, like in a projection $e.c$, a constant field may be written as simply $X$, rather than $\#X$.
adamc@529	585
adamc@529	586 A record type may be written $\{(c = c,)^\}$, which elaborates to $\$[(c = c,)^]$.
adamc@529	587
adamc@533	588 The notation $[c_1, \ldots, c_n]$ is shorthand for $[c_1 = (), \ldots, c_n = ()]$.
adamc@533	589
adam@1350	590 A tuple type $\tau_1 \times \ldots \times \tau_n$ expands to a record type $\{1 : \tau_1, \ldots, n : \tau_n\}$, with natural numbers as field names. A tuple expression $(e_1, \ldots, e_n)$ expands to a record expression $\{1 = e_1, \ldots, n = e_n\}$. A tuple pattern $(p_1, \ldots, p_n)$ expands to a rigid record pattern $\{1 = p_1, \ldots, n = p_n\}$. Positive natural numbers may be used in most places where field names would be allowed.
adamc@529	591
adam@1687	592 The syntax $()$ expands to $\{\}$ as a pattern or expression.
adam@1687	593
adamc@852	594 In general, several adjacent $\lambda$ forms may be combined into one, and kind and type annotations may be omitted, in which case they are implicitly included as wildcards. More formally, for constructor-level abstractions, we can define a new non-terminal $b ::= x \mid (x :: \kappa) \mid X$ and allow composite abstractions of the form $\lambda b^+ \Rightarrow c$, elaborating into the obvious sequence of one core $\lambda$ per element of $b^+$.
adamc@529	595
adam@1574	596 Further, the signature item or declaration syntax $\mt{con} \; x \; b^+ = c$ is shorthand for wrapping of the appropriate $\lambda$s around the righthand side $c$. The $b$ elements may not include $X$, and there may also be an optional $:: \kappa$ before the $=$.
adam@1574	597
adam@1306	598 In some contexts, the parser isn't happy with token sequences like $x :: \_$, to indicate a constructor variable of wildcard kind. In such cases, write the second two tokens as $::\hspace{-.05in}\_$, with no intervening spaces. Analogous syntax $:::\hspace{-.05in}\_$ is available for implicit constructor arguments.
adam@1302	599
adamc@529	600 For any signature item or declaration that defines some entity to be equal to $A$ with classification annotation $B$ (e.g., $\mt{val} \; x : B = A$), $B$ and the preceding colon (or similar punctuation) may be omitted, in which case it is filled in as a wildcard.
adamc@529	601
adamc@529	602 A signature item or declaration $\mt{type} \; x$ or $\mt{type} \; x = \tau$ is elaborated into $\mt{con} \; x :: \mt{Type}$ or $\mt{con} \; x :: \mt{Type} = \tau$, respectively.
adamc@529	603
adamc@654	604 A signature item or declaration $\mt{class} \; x = \lambda y \Rightarrow c$ may be abbreviated $\mt{class} \; x \; y = c$.
adamc@529	605
adam@1738	606 Handling of implicit and explicit constructor arguments may be tweaked with some prefixes to variable references. An expression $@x$ is a version of $x$ where all type class instance and disjointness arguments have been made explicit. (For the purposes of this paragraph, the type family $\mt{Top.folder}$ is a type class, though it isn't marked as one by the usual means; and any record type is considered to be a type class instance type when every field's type is a type class instance type.) An expression $@@x$ achieves the same effect, additionally making explicit all implicit constructor arguments. The default is that implicit arguments are inserted automatically after any reference to a variable, or after any application of a variable to one or more arguments. For such an expression, implicit wildcard arguments are added for the longest prefix of the expression's type consisting only of implicit polymorphism, type class instances, and disjointness obligations. The same syntax works for variables projected out of modules and for capitalized variables (datatype constructors).
adamc@529	607
adamc@852	608 At the expression level, an analogue is available of the composite $\lambda$ form for constructors. We define the language of binders as $b ::= p \mid [x] \mid [x \; ? \; \kappa] \mid X \mid [c \sim c]$. A lone variable $[x]$ stands for an implicit constructor variable of unspecified kind. The standard value-level function binder is recovered as the type-annotated pattern form $x : \tau$. It is a compile-time error to include a pattern $p$ that does not match every value of the appropriate type.
adamc@529	609
adamc@852	610 A local $\mt{val}$ declaration may bind a pattern instead of just a plain variable. As for function arguments, only irrefutable patterns are legal.
adamc@852	611
adam@1797	612 The keyword $\mt{fun}$ is a shorthand for $\mt{val} \; \mt{rec}$ that allows arguments to be specified before the equal sign in the definition of each mutually recursive function, as in SML. Each curried argument must follow the grammar of the $b$ non-terminal introduced two paragraphs ago. A $\mt{fun}$ declaration is elaborated into a version that adds additional $\lambda$s to the fronts of the righthand sides, as appropriate.
adamc@529	613
adamc@529	614 A signature item $\mt{functor} \; X_1 \; (X_2 : S_1) : S_2$ is elaborated into $\mt{structure} \; X_1 : \mt{functor}(X_2 : S_1) : S_2$. A declaration $\mt{functor} \; X_1 \; (X_2 : S_1) : S_2 = M$ is elaborated into $\mt{structure} \; X_1 : \mt{functor}(X_2 : S_1) : S_2 = \mt{functor}(X_2 : S_1) : S_2 = M$.
adamc@529	615
adamc@852	616 An $\mt{open} \; \mt{constraints}$ declaration is implicitly inserted for the argument of every functor at the beginning of the functor body. For every declaration of the form $\mt{structure} \; X : S = \mt{struct} \ldots \mt{end}$, an $\mt{open} \; \mt{constraints} \; X$ declaration is implicitly inserted immediately afterward.
adamc@852	617
adamc@853	618 A declaration $\mt{table} \; x : \{(c = c,)^\}$ is elaborated into $\mt{table} \; x : [(c = c,)^]$.
adamc@529	619
adamc@529	620 The syntax $\mt{where} \; \mt{type}$ is an alternate form of $\mt{where} \; \mt{con}$.
adamc@529	621
adamc@529	622 The syntax $\mt{if} \; e \; \mt{then} \; e_1 \; \mt{else} \; e_2$ expands to $\mt{case} \; e \; \mt{of} \; \mt{Basis}.\mt{True} \Rightarrow e_1 \mid \mt{Basis}.\mt{False} \Rightarrow e_2$.
adamc@529	623
adamc@529	624 There are infix operator syntaxes for a number of functions defined in the $\mt{Basis}$ module. There is $=$ for $\mt{eq}$, $\neq$ for $\mt{neq}$, $-$ for $\mt{neg}$ (as a prefix operator) and $\mt{minus}$, $+$ for $\mt{plus}$, $\times$ for $\mt{times}$, $/$ for $\mt{div}$, $\%$ for $\mt{mod}$, $<$ for $\mt{lt}$, $\leq$ for $\mt{le}$, $>$ for $\mt{gt}$, and $\geq$ for $\mt{ge}$.
adamc@529	625
adamc@784	626 A signature item $\mt{table} \; x : c$ is shorthand for $\mt{val} \; x : \mt{Basis}.\mt{sql\_table} \; c \; []$. $\mt{view} \; x : c$ is shorthand for $\mt{val} \; x : \mt{Basis}.\mt{sql\_view} \; c$, $\mt{sequence} \; x$ is short for $\mt{val} \; x : \mt{Basis}.\mt{sql\_sequence}$. $\mt{cookie} \; x : \tau$ is shorthand for $\mt{val} \; x : \mt{Basis}.\mt{http\_cookie} \; \tau$, and $\mt{style} \; x$ is shorthand for $\mt{val} \; x : \mt{Basis}.\mt{css\_class}$.
adamc@529	627
adam@2025	628 It is possible to write a $\mt{let}$ expression with its constituents in reverse order, along the lines of Haskell's \cd{where}. An expression $\mt{let} \; e \; \mt{where} \; ed^* \; \mt{end}$ desugars to $\mt{let} \; ed^* \; \mt{in} \; e \; \mt{end}$.
adam@2025	629
adamc@530	630
adamc@530	631 \section{Static Semantics}
adamc@530	632
adamc@530	633 In this section, we give a declarative presentation of Ur's typing rules and related judgments. Inference is the subject of the next section; here, we assume that an oracle has filled in all wildcards with concrete values.
adamc@530	634
adam@1891	635 The notations used here are the standard ones of programming language semantics. They are probably the most effective way to convey this information. At the same time, most Ur/Web users can probably get by \emph{without} knowing the contents of this section! If you're interested in diving into the details of Ur typing but are unfamiliar with ``inference rule notation,'' I recommend the following book:
adam@1891	636 \begin{quote}
adam@1891	637 Benjamin C. Pierce, \emph{Types and Programming Languages}, MIT Press, 2002.
adam@1891	638 \end{quote}
adam@1891	639
adamc@530	640 Since there is significant mutual recursion among the judgments, we introduce them all before beginning to give rules. We use the same variety of contexts throughout this section, implicitly introducing new sorts of context entries as needed.
adamc@530	641 \begin{itemize}
adamc@655	642 \item $\Gamma \vdash \kappa$ expresses kind well-formedness.
adamc@530	643 \item $\Gamma \vdash c :: \kappa$ assigns a kind to a constructor in a context.
adamc@530	644 \item $\Gamma \vdash c \sim c$ proves the disjointness of two record constructors; that is, that they share no field names. We overload the judgment to apply to pairs of field names as well.
adamc@531	645 \item $\Gamma \vdash c \hookrightarrow C$ proves that record constructor $c$ decomposes into set $C$ of field names and record constructors.
adamc@530	646 \item $\Gamma \vdash c \equiv c$ proves the computational equivalence of two constructors. This is often called a \emph{definitional equality} in the world of type theory.
adamc@530	647 \item $\Gamma \vdash e : \tau$ is a standard typing judgment.
adamc@534	648 \item $\Gamma \vdash p \leadsto \Gamma; \tau$ combines typing of patterns with calculation of which new variables they bind.
adamc@537	649 \item $\Gamma \vdash d \leadsto \Gamma$ expresses how a declaration modifies a context. We overload this judgment to apply to sequences of declarations, as well as to signature items and sequences of signature items.
adamc@537	650 \item $\Gamma \vdash S \equiv S$ is the signature equivalence judgment.
adamc@536	651 \item $\Gamma \vdash S \leq S$ is the signature compatibility judgment. We write $\Gamma \vdash S$ as shorthand for $\Gamma \vdash S \leq S$.
adamc@530	652 \item $\Gamma \vdash M : S$ is the module signature checking judgment.
adamc@537	653 \item $\mt{proj}(M, \overline{s}, V)$ is a partial function for projecting a signature item from $\overline{s}$, given the module $M$ that we project from. $V$ may be $\mt{con} \; x$, $\mt{datatype} \; x$, $\mt{val} \; x$, $\mt{signature} \; X$, or $\mt{structure} \; X$. The parameter $M$ is needed because the projected signature item may refer to other items from $\overline{s}$.
adamc@539	654 \item $\mt{selfify}(M, \overline{s})$ adds information to signature items $\overline{s}$ to reflect the fact that we are concerned with the particular module $M$. This function is overloaded to work over individual signature items as well.
adamc@530	655 \end{itemize}
adamc@530	656
adamc@655	657
adamc@655	658 \subsection{Kind Well-Formedness}
adamc@655	659
adamc@655	660 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{Type}}{}
adamc@655	661 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{Unit}}{}
adamc@655	662 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{Name}}{}
adamc@655	663 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \kappa_1 \to \kappa_2}{
adamc@655	664 \Gamma \vdash \kappa_1
adamc@655	665 & \Gamma \vdash \kappa_2
adamc@655	666 }
adamc@655	667 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \{\kappa\}}{
adamc@655	668 \Gamma \vdash \kappa
adamc@655	669 }
adamc@655	670 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash (\kappa_1 \times \ldots \times \kappa_n)}{
adamc@655	671 \forall i: \Gamma \vdash \kappa_i
adamc@655	672 }$$
adamc@655	673
adamc@655	674 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash X}{
adamc@655	675 X \in \Gamma
adamc@655	676 }
adamc@655	677 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash X \longrightarrow \kappa}{
adamc@655	678 \Gamma, X \vdash \kappa
adamc@655	679 }$$
adamc@655	680
adamc@530	681 \subsection{Kinding}
adamc@530	682
adamc@655	683 We write $[X \mapsto \kappa_1]\kappa_2$ for capture-avoiding substitution of $\kappa_1$ for $X$ in $\kappa_2$.
adamc@655	684
adamc@530	685 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash (c) :: \kappa :: \kappa}{
adamc@530	686 \Gamma \vdash c :: \kappa
adamc@530	687 }
adamc@530	688 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash x :: \kappa}{
adamc@530	689 x :: \kappa \in \Gamma
adamc@530	690 }
adamc@530	691 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash x :: \kappa}{
adamc@530	692 x :: \kappa = c \in \Gamma
adamc@530	693 }$$
adamc@530	694
adamc@530	695 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash M.x :: \kappa}{
adamc@537	696 \Gamma \vdash M : \mt{sig} \; \overline{s} \; \mt{end}
adamc@537	697 & \mt{proj}(M, \overline{s}, \mt{con} \; x) = \kappa
adamc@530	698 }
adamc@530	699 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash M.x :: \kappa}{
adamc@537	700 \Gamma \vdash M : \mt{sig} \; \overline{s} \; \mt{end}
adamc@537	701 & \mt{proj}(M, \overline{s}, \mt{con} \; x) = (\kappa, c)
adamc@530	702 }$$
adamc@530	703
adamc@530	704 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \tau_1 \to \tau_2 :: \mt{Type}}{
adamc@530	705 \Gamma \vdash \tau_1 :: \mt{Type}
adamc@530	706 & \Gamma \vdash \tau_2 :: \mt{Type}
adamc@530	707 }
adamc@530	708 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash x \; ? \: \kappa \to \tau :: \mt{Type}}{
adamc@530	709 \Gamma, x :: \kappa \vdash \tau :: \mt{Type}
adamc@530	710 }
adamc@655	711 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash X \longrightarrow \tau :: \mt{Type}}{
adamc@655	712 \Gamma, X \vdash \tau :: \mt{Type}
adamc@655	713 }
adamc@530	714 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \$c :: \mt{Type}}{
adamc@530	715 \Gamma \vdash c :: \{\mt{Type}\}
adamc@530	716 }$$
adamc@530	717
adamc@530	718 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash c_1 \; c_2 :: \kappa_2}{
adamc@530	719 \Gamma \vdash c_1 :: \kappa_1 \to \kappa_2
adamc@530	720 & \Gamma \vdash c_2 :: \kappa_1
adamc@530	721 }
adamc@530	722 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \lambda x \; :: \; \kappa_1 \Rightarrow c :: \kappa_1 \to \kappa_2}{
adamc@530	723 \Gamma, x :: \kappa_1 \vdash c :: \kappa_2
adamc@530	724 }$$
adamc@530	725
adamc@655	726 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash c[\kappa'] :: [X \mapsto \kappa']\kappa}{
adamc@655	727 \Gamma \vdash c :: X \to \kappa
adamc@655	728 & \Gamma \vdash \kappa'
adamc@655	729 }
adamc@655	730 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash X \Longrightarrow c :: X \to \kappa}{
adamc@655	731 \Gamma, X \vdash c :: \kappa
adamc@655	732 }$$
adamc@655	733
adamc@530	734 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash () :: \mt{Unit}}{}
adamc@530	735 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \#X :: \mt{Name}}{}$$
adamc@530	736
adamc@530	737 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash [\overline{c_i = c'_i}] :: \{\kappa\}}{
adamc@530	738 \forall i: \Gamma \vdash c_i : \mt{Name}
adamc@530	739 & \Gamma \vdash c'_i :: \kappa
adamc@530	740 & \forall i \neq j: \Gamma \vdash c_i \sim c_j
adamc@530	741 }
adamc@530	742 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash c_1 \rc c_2 :: \{\kappa\}}{
adamc@530	743 \Gamma \vdash c_1 :: \{\kappa\}
adamc@530	744 & \Gamma \vdash c_2 :: \{\kappa\}
adamc@530	745 & \Gamma \vdash c_1 \sim c_2
adamc@530	746 }$$
adamc@530	747
adamc@655	748 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{map} :: (\kappa_1 \to \kappa_2) \to \{\kappa_1\} \to \{\kappa_2\}}{}$$
adamc@530	749
adamc@573	750 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash (\overline c) :: (\kappa_1 \times \ldots \times \kappa_n)}{
adamc@573	751 \forall i: \Gamma \vdash c_i :: \kappa_i
adamc@530	752 }
adamc@573	753 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash c.i :: \kappa_i}{
adamc@573	754 \Gamma \vdash c :: (\kappa_1 \times \ldots \times \kappa_n)
adamc@530	755 }$$
adamc@530	756
adamc@655	757 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \lambda [c_1 \sim c_2] \Rightarrow \tau :: \mt{Type}}{
adamc@655	758 \Gamma \vdash c_1 :: \{\kappa\}
adamc@530	759 & \Gamma \vdash c_2 :: \{\kappa'\}
adamc@655	760 & \Gamma, c_1 \sim c_2 \vdash \tau :: \mt{Type}
adamc@530	761 }$$
adamc@530	762
adamc@531	763 \subsection{Record Disjointness}
adamc@531	764
adamc@531	765 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash c_1 \sim c_2}{
adamc@558	766 \Gamma \vdash c_1 \hookrightarrow C_1
adamc@558	767 & \Gamma \vdash c_2 \hookrightarrow C_2
adamc@558	768 & \forall c'_1 \in C_1, c'_2 \in C_2: \Gamma \vdash c'_1 \sim c'_2
adamc@531	769 }
adamc@531	770 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash X \sim X'}{
adamc@531	771 X \neq X'
adamc@531	772 }$$
adamc@531	773
adamc@531	774 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash c_1 \sim c_2}{
adamc@531	775 c'_1 \sim c'_2 \in \Gamma
adamc@558	776 & \Gamma \vdash c'_1 \hookrightarrow C_1
adamc@558	777 & \Gamma \vdash c'_2 \hookrightarrow C_2
adamc@558	778 & c_1 \in C_1
adamc@558	779 & c_2 \in C_2
adamc@531	780 }$$
adamc@531	781
adamc@531	782 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash c \hookrightarrow \{c\}}{}
adamc@531	783 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash [\overline{c = c'}] \hookrightarrow \{\overline{c}\}}{}
adamc@531	784 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash c_1 \rc c_2 \hookrightarrow C_1 \cup C_2}{
adamc@531	785 \Gamma \vdash c_1 \hookrightarrow C_1
adamc@531	786 & \Gamma \vdash c_2 \hookrightarrow C_2
adamc@531	787 }
adamc@531	788 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash c \hookrightarrow C}{
adamc@531	789 \Gamma \vdash c \equiv c'
adamc@531	790 & \Gamma \vdash c' \hookrightarrow C
adamc@531	791 }
adamc@531	792 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{map} \; f \; c \hookrightarrow C}{
adamc@531	793 \Gamma \vdash c \hookrightarrow C
adamc@531	794 }$$
adamc@531	795
adamc@541	796 \subsection{\label{definitional}Definitional Equality}
adamc@532	797
adamc@655	798 We use $\mathcal C$ to stand for a one-hole context that, when filled, yields a constructor. The notation $\mathcal C[c]$ plugs $c$ into $\mathcal C$. We omit the standard definition of one-hole contexts. We write $[x \mapsto c_1]c_2$ for capture-avoiding substitution of $c_1$ for $x$ in $c_2$, with analogous notation for substituting a kind in a constructor.
adamc@532	799
adamc@532	800 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash c \equiv c}{}
adamc@532	801 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash c_1 \equiv c_2}{
adamc@532	802 \Gamma \vdash c_2 \equiv c_1
adamc@532	803 }
adamc@532	804 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash c_1 \equiv c_3}{
adamc@532	805 \Gamma \vdash c_1 \equiv c_2
adamc@532	806 & \Gamma \vdash c_2 \equiv c_3
adamc@532	807 }
adamc@532	808 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mathcal C[c_1] \equiv \mathcal C[c_2]}{
adamc@532	809 \Gamma \vdash c_1 \equiv c_2
adamc@532	810 }$$
adamc@532	811
adamc@532	812 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash x \equiv c}{
adamc@532	813 x :: \kappa = c \in \Gamma
adamc@532	814 }
adamc@532	815 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash M.x \equiv c}{
adamc@537	816 \Gamma \vdash M : \mt{sig} \; \overline{s} \; \mt{end}
adamc@537	817 & \mt{proj}(M, \overline{s}, \mt{con} \; x) = (\kappa, c)
adamc@532	818 }
adamc@532	819 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash (\overline c).i \equiv c_i}{}$$
adamc@532	820
adamc@532	821 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash (\lambda x :: \kappa \Rightarrow c) \; c' \equiv [x \mapsto c'] c}{}
adamc@655	822 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash (X \Longrightarrow c) [\kappa] \equiv [X \mapsto \kappa] c}{}$$
adamc@655	823
adamc@655	824 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash c_1 \rc c_2 \equiv c_2 \rc c_1}{}
adamc@532	825 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash c_1 \rc (c_2 \rc c_3) \equiv (c_1 \rc c_2) \rc c_3}{}$$
adamc@532	826
adamc@532	827 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash [] \rc c \equiv c}{}
adamc@532	828 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash [\overline{c_1 = c'_1}] \rc [\overline{c_2 = c'_2}] \equiv [\overline{c_1 = c'_1}, \overline{c_2 = c'_2}]}{}$$
adamc@532	829
adamc@655	830 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{map} \; f \; [] \equiv []}{}
adamc@655	831 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{map} \; f \; ([c_1 = c_2] \rc c) \equiv [c_1 = f \; c_2] \rc \mt{map} \; f \; c}{}$$
adamc@532	832
adamc@532	833 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{map} \; (\lambda x \Rightarrow x) \; c \equiv c}{}
adamc@655	834 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{map} \; f \; (\mt{map} \; f' \; c)
adamc@655	835 \equiv \mt{map} \; (\lambda x \Rightarrow f \; (f' \; x)) \; c}{}$$
adamc@532	836
adamc@532	837 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{map} \; f \; (c_1 \rc c_2) \equiv \mt{map} \; f \; c_1 \rc \mt{map} \; f \; c_2}{}$$
adamc@531	838
adamc@534	839 \subsection{Expression Typing}
adamc@533	840
adamc@873	841 We assume the existence of a function $T$ assigning types to literal constants. It maps integer constants to $\mt{Basis}.\mt{int}$, float constants to $\mt{Basis}.\mt{float}$, character constants to $\mt{Basis}.\mt{char}$, and string constants to $\mt{Basis}.\mt{string}$.
adamc@533	842
adamc@533	843 We also refer to a function $\mathcal I$, such that $\mathcal I(\tau)$ ``uses an oracle'' to instantiate all constructor function arguments at the beginning of $\tau$ that are marked implicit; i.e., replace $x_1 ::: \kappa_1 \to \ldots \to x_n ::: \kappa_n \to \tau$ with $[x_1 \mapsto c_1]\ldots[x_n \mapsto c_n]\tau$, where the $c_i$s are inferred and $\tau$ does not start like $x ::: \kappa \to \tau'$.
adamc@533	844
adamc@533	845 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash e : \tau : \tau}{
adamc@533	846 \Gamma \vdash e : \tau
adamc@533	847 }
adamc@533	848 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash e : \tau}{
adamc@533	849 \Gamma \vdash e : \tau'
adamc@533	850 & \Gamma \vdash \tau' \equiv \tau
adamc@533	851 }
adamc@533	852 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \ell : T(\ell)}{}$$
adamc@533	853
adamc@533	854 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash x : \mathcal I(\tau)}{
adamc@533	855 x : \tau \in \Gamma
adamc@533	856 }
adamc@533	857 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash M.x : \mathcal I(\tau)}{
adamc@537	858 \Gamma \vdash M : \mt{sig} \; \overline{s} \; \mt{end}
adamc@537	859 & \mt{proj}(M, \overline{s}, \mt{val} \; x) = \tau
adamc@533	860 }
adamc@533	861 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash X : \mathcal I(\tau)}{
adamc@533	862 X : \tau \in \Gamma
adamc@533	863 }
adamc@533	864 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash M.X : \mathcal I(\tau)}{
adamc@537	865 \Gamma \vdash M : \mt{sig} \; \overline{s} \; \mt{end}
adamc@537	866 & \mt{proj}(M, \overline{s}, \mt{val} \; X) = \tau
adamc@533	867 }$$
adamc@533	868
adamc@533	869 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash e_1 \; e_2 : \tau_2}{
adamc@533	870 \Gamma \vdash e_1 : \tau_1 \to \tau_2
adamc@533	871 & \Gamma \vdash e_2 : \tau_1
adamc@533	872 }
adamc@533	873 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \lambda x : \tau_1 \Rightarrow e : \tau_1 \to \tau_2}{
adamc@533	874 \Gamma, x : \tau_1 \vdash e : \tau_2
adamc@533	875 }$$
adamc@533	876
adamc@533	877 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash e [c] : [x \mapsto c]\tau}{
adamc@533	878 \Gamma \vdash e : x :: \kappa \to \tau
adamc@533	879 & \Gamma \vdash c :: \kappa
adamc@533	880 }
adamc@852	881 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \lambda [x \; ? \; \kappa] \Rightarrow e : x \; ? \; \kappa \to \tau}{
adamc@533	882 \Gamma, x :: \kappa \vdash e : \tau
adamc@533	883 }$$
adamc@533	884
adamc@655	885 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash e [\kappa] : [X \mapsto \kappa]\tau}{
adamc@655	886 \Gamma \vdash e : X \longrightarrow \tau
adamc@655	887 & \Gamma \vdash \kappa
adamc@655	888 }
adamc@655	889 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash X \Longrightarrow e : X \longrightarrow \tau}{
adamc@655	890 \Gamma, X \vdash e : \tau
adamc@655	891 }$$
adamc@655	892
adamc@533	893 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \{\overline{c = e}\} : \{\overline{c : \tau}\}}{
adamc@533	894 \forall i: \Gamma \vdash c_i :: \mt{Name}
adamc@533	895 & \Gamma \vdash e_i : \tau_i
adamc@533	896 & \forall i \neq j: \Gamma \vdash c_i \sim c_j
adamc@533	897 }
adamc@533	898 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash e.c : \tau}{
adamc@533	899 \Gamma \vdash e : \$([c = \tau] \rc c')
adamc@533	900 }
adamc@533	901 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash e_1 \rc e_2 : \$(c_1 \rc c_2)}{
adamc@533	902 \Gamma \vdash e_1 : \$c_1
adamc@533	903 & \Gamma \vdash e_2 : \$c_2
adamc@573	904 & \Gamma \vdash c_1 \sim c_2
adamc@533	905 }$$
adamc@533	906
adamc@533	907 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash e \rcut c : \$c'}{
adamc@533	908 \Gamma \vdash e : \$([c = \tau] \rc c')
adamc@533	909 }
adamc@533	910 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash e \rcutM c : \$c'}{
adamc@533	911 \Gamma \vdash e : \$(c \rc c')
adamc@533	912 }$$
adamc@533	913
adamc@533	914 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{let} \; \overline{ed} \; \mt{in} \; e \; \mt{end} : \tau}{
adamc@533	915 \Gamma \vdash \overline{ed} \leadsto \Gamma'
adamc@533	916 & \Gamma' \vdash e : \tau
adamc@533	917 }
adamc@533	918 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{case} \; e \; \mt{of} \; \overline{p \Rightarrow e} : \tau}{
adamc@533	919 \forall i: \Gamma \vdash p_i \leadsto \Gamma_i, \tau'
adamc@533	920 & \Gamma_i \vdash e_i : \tau
adamc@533	921 }$$
adamc@533	922
adamc@573	923 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \lambda [c_1 \sim c_2] \Rightarrow e : \lambda [c_1 \sim c_2] \Rightarrow \tau}{
adamc@533	924 \Gamma \vdash c_1 :: \{\kappa\}
adamc@655	925 & \Gamma \vdash c_2 :: \{\kappa'\}
adamc@533	926 & \Gamma, c_1 \sim c_2 \vdash e : \tau
adamc@662	927 }
adamc@662	928 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash e \; ! : \tau}{
adamc@662	929 \Gamma \vdash e : [c_1 \sim c_2] \Rightarrow \tau
adamc@662	930 & \Gamma \vdash c_1 \sim c_2
adamc@533	931 }$$
adamc@533	932
adamc@534	933 \subsection{Pattern Typing}
adamc@534	934
adamc@534	935 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \_ \leadsto \Gamma; \tau}{}
adamc@534	936 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash x \leadsto \Gamma, x : \tau; \tau}{}
adamc@534	937 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \ell \leadsto \Gamma; T(\ell)}{}$$
adamc@534	938
adamc@534	939 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash X \leadsto \Gamma; \overline{[x_i \mapsto \tau'_i]}\tau}{
adamc@534	940 X : \overline{x ::: \mt{Type}} \to \tau \in \Gamma
adamc@534	941 & \textrm{$\tau$ not a function type}
adamc@534	942 }
adamc@534	943 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash X \; p \leadsto \Gamma'; \overline{[x_i \mapsto \tau'_i]}\tau}{
adamc@534	944 X : \overline{x ::: \mt{Type}} \to \tau'' \to \tau \in \Gamma
adamc@534	945 & \Gamma \vdash p \leadsto \Gamma'; \overline{[x_i \mapsto \tau'_i]}\tau''
adamc@534	946 }$$
adamc@534	947
adamc@534	948 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash M.X \leadsto \Gamma; \overline{[x_i \mapsto \tau'_i]}\tau}{
adamc@537	949 \Gamma \vdash M : \mt{sig} \; \overline{s} \; \mt{end}
adamc@537	950 & \mt{proj}(M, \overline{s}, \mt{val} \; X) = \overline{x ::: \mt{Type}} \to \tau
adamc@534	951 & \textrm{$\tau$ not a function type}
adamc@534	952 }$$
adamc@534	953
adamc@534	954 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash M.X \; p \leadsto \Gamma'; \overline{[x_i \mapsto \tau'_i]}\tau}{
adamc@537	955 \Gamma \vdash M : \mt{sig} \; \overline{s} \; \mt{end}
adamc@537	956 & \mt{proj}(M, \overline{s}, \mt{val} \; X) = \overline{x ::: \mt{Type}} \to \tau'' \to \tau
adamc@534	957 & \Gamma \vdash p \leadsto \Gamma'; \overline{[x_i \mapsto \tau'_i]}\tau''
adamc@534	958 }$$
adamc@534	959
adamc@534	960 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \{\overline{x = p}\} \leadsto \Gamma_n; \{\overline{x = \tau}\}}{
adamc@534	961 \Gamma_0 = \Gamma
adamc@534	962 & \forall i: \Gamma_i \vdash p_i \leadsto \Gamma_{i+1}; \tau_i
adamc@534	963 }
adamc@534	964 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \{\overline{x = p}, \ldots\} \leadsto \Gamma_n; \$([\overline{x = \tau}] \rc c)}{
adamc@534	965 \Gamma_0 = \Gamma
adamc@534	966 & \forall i: \Gamma_i \vdash p_i \leadsto \Gamma_{i+1}; \tau_i
adamc@534	967 }$$
adamc@534	968
adamc@852	969 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash p : \tau \leadsto \Gamma'; \tau}{
adamc@852	970 \Gamma \vdash p \leadsto \Gamma'; \tau'
adamc@852	971 & \Gamma \vdash \tau' \equiv \tau
adamc@852	972 }$$
adamc@852	973
adamc@535	974 \subsection{Declaration Typing}
adamc@535	975
adamc@535	976 We use an auxiliary judgment $\overline{y}; x; \Gamma \vdash \overline{dc} \leadsto \Gamma'$, expressing the enrichment of $\Gamma$ with the types of the datatype constructors $\overline{dc}$, when they are known to belong to datatype $x$ with type parameters $\overline{y}$.
adamc@535	977
adamc@558	978 We presuppose the existence of a function $\mathcal O$, where $\mathcal O(M, \overline{s})$ implements the $\mt{open}$ declaration by producing a context with the appropriate entry for each available component of module $M$ with signature items $\overline{s}$. Where possible, $\mathcal O$ uses ``transparent'' entries (e.g., an abstract type $M.x$ is mapped to $x :: \mt{Type} = M.x$), so that the relationship with $M$ is maintained. A related function $\mathcal O_c$ builds a context containing the disjointness constraints found in $\overline s$.
adamc@537	979 We write $\kappa_1^n \to \kappa$ as a shorthand, where $\kappa_1^0 \to \kappa = \kappa$ and $\kappa_1^{n+1} \to \kappa_2 = \kappa_1 \to (\kappa_1^n \to \kappa_2)$. We write $\mt{len}(\overline{y})$ for the length of vector $\overline{y}$ of variables.
adamc@535	980
adamc@535	981 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \cdot \leadsto \Gamma}{}
adamc@535	982 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash d, \overline{d} \leadsto \Gamma''}{
adamc@535	983 \Gamma \vdash d \leadsto \Gamma'
adamc@535	984 & \Gamma' \vdash \overline{d} \leadsto \Gamma''
adamc@535	985 }$$
adamc@535	986
adamc@535	987 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa = c \leadsto \Gamma, x :: \kappa = c}{
adamc@535	988 \Gamma \vdash c :: \kappa
adamc@535	989 }
adamc@535	990 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{datatype} \; x \; \overline{y} = \overline{dc} \leadsto \Gamma'}{
adamc@535	991 \overline{y}; x; \Gamma, x :: \mt{Type}^{\mt{len}(\overline y)} \to \mt{Type} \vdash \overline{dc} \leadsto \Gamma'
adamc@535	992 }$$
adamc@535	993
adamc@535	994 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{datatype} \; x = \mt{datatype} \; M.z \leadsto \Gamma'}{
adamc@537	995 \Gamma \vdash M : \mt{sig} \; \overline{s} \; \mt{end}
adamc@537	996 & \mt{proj}(M, \overline{s}, \mt{datatype} \; z) = (\overline{y}, \overline{dc})
adamc@535	997 & \overline{y}; x; \Gamma, x :: \mt{Type}^{\mt{len}(\overline y)} \to \mt{Type} = M.z \vdash \overline{dc} \leadsto \Gamma'
adamc@535	998 }$$
adamc@535	999
adamc@535	1000 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{val} \; x : \tau = e \leadsto \Gamma, x : \tau}{
adamc@535	1001 \Gamma \vdash e : \tau
adamc@535	1002 }$$
adamc@535	1003
adamc@535	1004 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{val} \; \mt{rec} \; \overline{x : \tau = e} \leadsto \Gamma, \overline{x : \tau}}{
adamc@535	1005 \forall i: \Gamma, \overline{x : \tau} \vdash e_i : \tau_i
adamc@535	1006 & \textrm{$e_i$ starts with an expression $\lambda$, optionally preceded by constructor and disjointness $\lambda$s}
adamc@535	1007 }$$
adamc@535	1008
adamc@535	1009 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{structure} \; X : S = M \leadsto \Gamma, X : S}{
adamc@535	1010 \Gamma \vdash M : S
adamc@558	1011 & \textrm{ $M$ not a constant or application}
adamc@535	1012 }
adamc@558	1013 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{structure} \; X : S = M \leadsto \Gamma, X : \mt{selfify}(X, \overline{s})}{
adamc@558	1014 \Gamma \vdash M : \mt{sig} \; \overline{s} \; \mt{end}
adamc@539	1015 }$$
adamc@539	1016
adamc@539	1017 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{signature} \; X = S \leadsto \Gamma, X = S}{
adamc@535	1018 \Gamma \vdash S
adamc@535	1019 }$$
adamc@535	1020
adamc@537	1021 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{open} \; M \leadsto \Gamma, \mathcal O(M, \overline{s})}{
adamc@537	1022 \Gamma \vdash M : \mt{sig} \; \overline{s} \; \mt{end}
adamc@535	1023 }$$
adamc@535	1024
adamc@535	1025 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{constraint} \; c_1 \sim c_2 \leadsto \Gamma}{
adamc@535	1026 \Gamma \vdash c_1 :: \{\kappa\}
adamc@535	1027 & \Gamma \vdash c_2 :: \{\kappa\}
adamc@535	1028 & \Gamma \vdash c_1 \sim c_2
adamc@535	1029 }
adamc@537	1030 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{open} \; \mt{constraints} \; M \leadsto \Gamma, \mathcal O_c(M, \overline{s})}{
adamc@537	1031 \Gamma \vdash M : \mt{sig} \; \overline{s} \; \mt{end}
adamc@535	1032 }$$
adamc@535	1033
adamc@784	1034 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{table} \; x : c \leadsto \Gamma, x : \mt{Basis}.\mt{sql\_table} \; c \; []}{
adamc@535	1035 \Gamma \vdash c :: \{\mt{Type}\}
adamc@535	1036 }
adam@1594	1037 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{view} \; x = e \leadsto \Gamma, x : \mt{Basis}.\mt{sql\_view} \; c}{
adam@1594	1038 \Gamma \vdash e :: \mt{Basis}.\mt{sql\_query} \; [] \; [] \; (\mt{map} \; (\lambda \_ \Rightarrow []) \; c') \; c
adamc@784	1039 }$$
adamc@784	1040
adamc@784	1041 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{sequence} \; x \leadsto \Gamma, x : \mt{Basis}.\mt{sql\_sequence}}{}$$
adamc@535	1042
adamc@535	1043 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{cookie} \; x : \tau \leadsto \Gamma, x : \mt{Basis}.\mt{http\_cookie} \; \tau}{
adamc@535	1044 \Gamma \vdash \tau :: \mt{Type}
adamc@784	1045 }
adamc@784	1046 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{style} \; x \leadsto \Gamma, x : \mt{Basis}.\mt{css\_class}}{}$$
adamc@535	1047
adamc@1085	1048 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{task} \; e_1 = e_2 \leadsto \Gamma}{
adam@1348	1049 \Gamma \vdash e_1 :: \mt{Basis}.\mt{task\_kind} \; \tau
adam@1348	1050 & \Gamma \vdash e_2 :: \tau \to \mt{Basis}.\mt{transaction} \; \{\}
adamc@1085	1051 }$$
adamc@1085	1052
adamc@535	1053 $$\infer{\overline{y}; x; \Gamma \vdash \cdot \leadsto \Gamma}{}
adamc@535	1054 \quad \infer{\overline{y}; x; \Gamma \vdash X \mid \overline{dc} \leadsto \Gamma', X : \overline{y ::: \mt{Type}} \to x \; \overline{y}}{
adamc@535	1055 \overline{y}; x; \Gamma \vdash \overline{dc} \leadsto \Gamma'
adamc@535	1056 }
adamc@535	1057 \quad \infer{\overline{y}; x; \Gamma \vdash X \; \mt{of} \; \tau \mid \overline{dc} \leadsto \Gamma', X : \overline{y ::: \mt{Type}} \to \tau \to x \; \overline{y}}{
adamc@535	1058 \overline{y}; x; \Gamma \vdash \overline{dc} \leadsto \Gamma'
adamc@535	1059 }$$
adamc@535	1060
adamc@537	1061 \subsection{Signature Item Typing}
adamc@537	1062
adamc@537	1063 We appeal to a signature item analogue of the $\mathcal O$ function from the last subsection.
adamc@537	1064
adam@1797	1065 This is the first judgment where we deal with constructor classes, for the $\mt{class}$ forms. We will omit their special handling in this formal specification. Section \ref{typeclasses} gives an informal description of how constructor classes influence type inference.
adam@1797	1066
adamc@537	1067 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \cdot \leadsto \Gamma}{}
adamc@537	1068 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash s, \overline{s} \leadsto \Gamma''}{
adamc@537	1069 \Gamma \vdash s \leadsto \Gamma'
adamc@537	1070 & \Gamma' \vdash \overline{s} \leadsto \Gamma''
adamc@537	1071 }$$
adamc@537	1072
adamc@537	1073 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa \leadsto \Gamma, x :: \kappa}{}
adamc@537	1074 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa = c \leadsto \Gamma, x :: \kappa = c}{
adamc@537	1075 \Gamma \vdash c :: \kappa
adamc@537	1076 }
adamc@537	1077 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{datatype} \; x \; \overline{y} = \overline{dc} \leadsto \Gamma'}{
adamc@537	1078 \overline{y}; x; \Gamma, x :: \mt{Type}^{\mt{len}(\overline y)} \to \mt{Type} \vdash \overline{dc} \leadsto \Gamma'
adamc@537	1079 }$$
adamc@537	1080
adamc@537	1081 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{datatype} \; x = \mt{datatype} \; M.z \leadsto \Gamma'}{
adamc@537	1082 \Gamma \vdash M : \mt{sig} \; \overline{s} \; \mt{end}
adamc@537	1083 & \mt{proj}(M, \overline{s}, \mt{datatype} \; z) = (\overline{y}, \overline{dc})
adamc@537	1084 & \overline{y}; x; \Gamma, x :: \mt{Type}^{\mt{len}(\overline y)} \to \mt{Type} = M.z \vdash \overline{dc} \leadsto \Gamma'
adamc@537	1085 }$$
adamc@537	1086
adamc@537	1087 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{val} \; x : \tau \leadsto \Gamma, x : \tau}{
adamc@537	1088 \Gamma \vdash \tau :: \mt{Type}
adamc@537	1089 }$$
adamc@537	1090
adamc@537	1091 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{structure} \; X : S \leadsto \Gamma, X : S}{
adamc@537	1092 \Gamma \vdash S
adamc@537	1093 }
adamc@537	1094 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{signature} \; X = S \leadsto \Gamma, X = S}{
adamc@537	1095 \Gamma \vdash S
adamc@537	1096 }$$
adamc@537	1097
adamc@537	1098 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{include} \; S \leadsto \Gamma, \mathcal O(\overline{s})}{
adamc@537	1099 \Gamma \vdash S
adamc@537	1100 & \Gamma \vdash S \equiv \mt{sig} \; \overline{s} \; \mt{end}
adamc@537	1101 }$$
adamc@537	1102
adamc@537	1103 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{constraint} \; c_1 \sim c_2 \leadsto \Gamma, c_1 \sim c_2}{
adamc@537	1104 \Gamma \vdash c_1 :: \{\kappa\}
adamc@537	1105 & \Gamma \vdash c_2 :: \{\kappa\}
adamc@537	1106 }$$
adamc@537	1107
adamc@784	1108 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{class} \; x :: \kappa = c \leadsto \Gamma, x :: \kappa = c}{
adamc@784	1109 \Gamma \vdash c :: \kappa
adamc@537	1110 }
adamc@784	1111 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{class} \; x :: \kappa \leadsto \Gamma, x :: \kappa}{}$$
adamc@537	1112
adamc@536	1113 \subsection{Signature Compatibility}
adamc@536	1114
adam@1797	1115 To simplify the judgments in this section, we assume that all signatures are alpha-varied as necessary to avoid including multiple bindings for the same identifier. This is in addition to the usual alpha-variation of locally bound variables.
adamc@537	1116
adamc@537	1117 We rely on a judgment $\Gamma \vdash \overline{s} \leq s'$, which expresses the occurrence in signature items $\overline{s}$ of an item compatible with $s'$. We also use a judgment $\Gamma \vdash \overline{dc} \leq \overline{dc}$, which expresses compatibility of datatype definitions.
adamc@537	1118
adamc@536	1119 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash S \equiv S}{}
adamc@536	1120 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash S_1 \equiv S_2}{
adamc@536	1121 \Gamma \vdash S_2 \equiv S_1
adamc@536	1122 }
adamc@536	1123 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash X \equiv S}{
adamc@536	1124 X = S \in \Gamma
adamc@536	1125 }
adamc@536	1126 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash M.X \equiv S}{
adamc@537	1127 \Gamma \vdash M : \mt{sig} \; \overline{s} \; \mt{end}
adamc@537	1128 & \mt{proj}(M, \overline{s}, \mt{signature} \; X) = S
adamc@536	1129 }$$
adamc@536	1130
adamc@536	1131 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash S \; \mt{where} \; \mt{con} \; x = c \equiv \mt{sig} \; \overline{s^1} \; \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa = c \; \overline{s_2} \; \mt{end}}{
adamc@536	1132 \Gamma \vdash S \equiv \mt{sig} \; \overline{s^1} \; \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa \; \overline{s_2} \; \mt{end}
adamc@536	1133 & \Gamma \vdash c :: \kappa
adamc@537	1134 }
adamc@537	1135 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{sig} \; \overline{s^1} \; \mt{include} \; S \; \overline{s^2} \; \mt{end} \equiv \mt{sig} \; \overline{s^1} \; \overline{s} \; \overline{s^2} \; \mt{end}}{
adamc@537	1136 \Gamma \vdash S \equiv \mt{sig} \; \overline{s} \; \mt{end}
adamc@536	1137 }$$
adamc@536	1138
adamc@536	1139 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash S_1 \leq S_2}{
adamc@536	1140 \Gamma \vdash S_1 \equiv S_2
adamc@536	1141 }
adamc@536	1142 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{sig} \; \overline{s} \; \mt{end} \leq \mt{sig} \; \mt{end}}{}
adamc@537	1143 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{sig} \; \overline{s} \; \mt{end} \leq \mt{sig} \; s' \; \overline{s'} \; \mt{end}}{
adamc@537	1144 \Gamma \vdash \overline{s} \leq s'
adamc@537	1145 & \Gamma \vdash s' \leadsto \Gamma'
adamc@537	1146 & \Gamma' \vdash \mt{sig} \; \overline{s} \; \mt{end} \leq \mt{sig} \; \overline{s'} \; \mt{end}
adamc@537	1147 }$$
adamc@537	1148
adamc@537	1149 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash s \; \overline{s} \leq s'}{
adamc@537	1150 \Gamma \vdash s \leq s'
adamc@537	1151 }
adamc@537	1152 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash s \; \overline{s} \leq s'}{
adamc@537	1153 \Gamma \vdash s \leadsto \Gamma'
adamc@537	1154 & \Gamma' \vdash \overline{s} \leq s'
adamc@536	1155 }$$
adamc@536	1156
adamc@536	1157 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{functor} (X : S_1) : S_2 \leq \mt{functor} (X : S'_1) : S'_2}{
adamc@536	1158 \Gamma \vdash S'_1 \leq S_1
adamc@536	1159 & \Gamma, X : S'_1 \vdash S_2 \leq S'_2
adamc@536	1160 }$$
adamc@536	1161
adamc@537	1162 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa \leq \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa}{}
adamc@537	1163 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa = c \leq \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa}{}
adamc@558	1164 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{datatype} \; x \; \overline{y} = \overline{dc} \leq \mt{con} \; x :: \mt{Type}^{\mt{len}(\overline y)} \to \mt{Type}}{}$$
adamc@537	1165
adamc@537	1166 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{datatype} \; x = \mt{datatype} \; M.z \leq \mt{con} \; x :: \mt{Type}^{\mt{len}(y)} \to \mt{Type}}{
adamc@537	1167 \Gamma \vdash M : \mt{sig} \; \overline{s} \; \mt{end}
adamc@537	1168 & \mt{proj}(M, \overline{s}, \mt{datatype} \; z) = (\overline{y}, \overline{dc})
adamc@537	1169 }$$
adamc@537	1170
adamc@784	1171 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{class} \; x :: \kappa \leq \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa}{}
adamc@784	1172 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{class} \; x :: \kappa = c \leq \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa}{}$$
adamc@537	1173
adamc@537	1174 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa = c_1 \leq \mt{con} \; x :: \mt{\kappa} = c_2}{
adamc@537	1175 \Gamma \vdash c_1 \equiv c_2
adamc@537	1176 }
adamc@784	1177 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{class} \; x :: \kappa = c_1 \leq \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa = c_2}{
adamc@537	1178 \Gamma \vdash c_1 \equiv c_2
adamc@537	1179 }$$
adamc@537	1180
adamc@537	1181 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{datatype} \; x \; \overline{y} = \overline{dc} \leq \mt{datatype} \; x \; \overline{y} = \overline{dc'}}{
adamc@537	1182 \Gamma, \overline{y :: \mt{Type}} \vdash \overline{dc} \leq \overline{dc'}
adamc@537	1183 }$$
adamc@537	1184
adamc@537	1185 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{datatype} \; x = \mt{datatype} \; M.z \leq \mt{datatype} \; x \; \overline{y} = \overline{dc'}}{
adamc@537	1186 \Gamma \vdash M : \mt{sig} \; \overline{s} \; \mt{end}
adamc@537	1187 & \mt{proj}(M, \overline{s}, \mt{datatype} \; z) = (\overline{y}, \overline{dc})
adamc@537	1188 & \Gamma, \overline{y :: \mt{Type}} \vdash \overline{dc} \leq \overline{dc'}
adamc@537	1189 }$$
adamc@537	1190
adamc@537	1191 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \cdot \leq \cdot}{}
adamc@537	1192 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash X; \overline{dc} \leq X; \overline{dc'}}{
adamc@537	1193 \Gamma \vdash \overline{dc} \leq \overline{dc'}
adamc@537	1194 }
adamc@537	1195 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash X \; \mt{of} \; \tau_1; \overline{dc} \leq X \; \mt{of} \; \tau_2; \overline{dc'}}{
adamc@537	1196 \Gamma \vdash \tau_1 \equiv \tau_2
adamc@537	1197 & \Gamma \vdash \overline{dc} \leq \overline{dc'}
adamc@537	1198 }$$
adamc@537	1199
adamc@537	1200 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{datatype} \; x = \mt{datatype} \; M.z \leq \mt{datatype} \; x = \mt{datatype} \; M'.z'}{
adamc@537	1201 \Gamma \vdash M.z \equiv M'.z'
adamc@537	1202 }$$
adamc@537	1203
adamc@537	1204 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{val} \; x : \tau_1 \leq \mt{val} \; x : \tau_2}{
adamc@537	1205 \Gamma \vdash \tau_1 \equiv \tau_2
adamc@537	1206 }
adamc@537	1207 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{structure} \; X : S_1 \leq \mt{structure} \; X : S_2}{
adamc@537	1208 \Gamma \vdash S_1 \leq S_2
adamc@537	1209 }
adamc@537	1210 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{signature} \; X = S_1 \leq \mt{signature} \; X = S_2}{
adamc@537	1211 \Gamma \vdash S_1 \leq S_2
adamc@537	1212 & \Gamma \vdash S_2 \leq S_1
adamc@537	1213 }$$
adamc@537	1214
adamc@537	1215 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{constraint} \; c_1 \sim c_2 \leq \mt{constraint} \; c'_1 \sim c'_2}{
adamc@537	1216 \Gamma \vdash c_1 \equiv c'_1
adamc@537	1217 & \Gamma \vdash c_2 \equiv c'_2
adamc@537	1218 }$$
adamc@537	1219
adamc@655	1220 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{class} \; x :: \kappa \leq \mt{class} \; x :: \kappa}{}
adamc@655	1221 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{class} \; x :: \kappa = c \leq \mt{class} \; x :: \kappa}{}
adamc@655	1222 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{class} \; x :: \kappa = c_1 \leq \mt{class} \; x :: \kappa = c_2}{
adamc@537	1223 \Gamma \vdash c_1 \equiv c_2
adamc@537	1224 }$$
adamc@537	1225
adam@1797	1226 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa \leq \mt{class} \; x :: \kappa}{}
adam@1797	1227 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa = c \leq \mt{class} \; x :: \kappa}{}
adam@1797	1228 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa = c_1 \leq \mt{class} \; x :: \kappa = c_2}{
adam@1797	1229 \Gamma \vdash c_1 \equiv c_2
adam@1797	1230 }$$
adam@1797	1231
adamc@538	1232 \subsection{Module Typing}
adamc@538	1233
adamc@538	1234 We use a helper function $\mt{sigOf}$, which converts declarations and sequences of declarations into their principal signature items and sequences of signature items, respectively.
adamc@538	1235
adamc@538	1236 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash M : S}{
adamc@538	1237 \Gamma \vdash M : S'
adamc@538	1238 & \Gamma \vdash S' \leq S
adamc@538	1239 }
adamc@538	1240 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{struct} \; \overline{d} \; \mt{end} : \mt{sig} \; \mt{sigOf}(\overline{d}) \; \mt{end}}{
adamc@538	1241 \Gamma \vdash \overline{d} \leadsto \Gamma'
adamc@538	1242 }
adamc@538	1243 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash X : S}{
adamc@538	1244 X : S \in \Gamma
adamc@538	1245 }$$
adamc@538	1246
adamc@538	1247 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash M.X : S}{
adamc@538	1248 \Gamma \vdash M : \mt{sig} \; \overline{s} \; \mt{end}
adamc@538	1249 & \mt{proj}(M, \overline{s}, \mt{structure} \; X) = S
adamc@538	1250 }$$
adamc@538	1251
adamc@538	1252 $$\infer{\Gamma \vdash M_1(M_2) : [X \mapsto M_2]S_2}{
adamc@538	1253 \Gamma \vdash M_1 : \mt{functor}(X : S_1) : S_2
adamc@538	1254 & \Gamma \vdash M_2 : S_1
adamc@538	1255 }
adamc@538	1256 \quad \infer{\Gamma \vdash \mt{functor} (X : S_1) : S_2 = M : \mt{functor} (X : S_1) : S_2}{
adamc@538	1257 \Gamma \vdash S_1
adamc@538	1258 & \Gamma, X : S_1 \vdash S_2
adamc@538	1259 & \Gamma, X : S_1 \vdash M : S_2
adamc@538	1260 }$$
adamc@538	1261
adamc@538	1262 \begin{eqnarray*}
adamc@538	1263 \mt{sigOf}(\cdot) &=& \cdot \\
adamc@538	1264 \mt{sigOf}(s \; \overline{s'}) &=& \mt{sigOf}(s) \; \mt{sigOf}(\overline{s'}) \\
adamc@538	1265 \\
adamc@538	1266 \mt{sigOf}(\mt{con} \; x :: \kappa = c) &=& \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa = c \\
adamc@538	1267 \mt{sigOf}(\mt{datatype} \; x \; \overline{y} = \overline{dc}) &=& \mt{datatype} \; x \; \overline{y} = \overline{dc} \\
adamc@538	1268 \mt{sigOf}(\mt{datatype} \; x = \mt{datatype} \; M.z) &=& \mt{datatype} \; x = \mt{datatype} \; M.z \\
adamc@538	1269 \mt{sigOf}(\mt{val} \; x : \tau = e) &=& \mt{val} \; x : \tau \\
adamc@538	1270 \mt{sigOf}(\mt{val} \; \mt{rec} \; \overline{x : \tau = e}) &=& \overline{\mt{val} \; x : \tau} \\
adamc@538	1271 \mt{sigOf}(\mt{structure} \; X : S = M) &=& \mt{structure} \; X : S \\
adamc@538	1272 \mt{sigOf}(\mt{signature} \; X = S) &=& \mt{signature} \; X = S \\
adamc@538	1273 \mt{sigOf}(\mt{open} \; M) &=& \mt{include} \; S \textrm{ (where $\Gamma \vdash M : S$)} \\
adamc@538	1274 \mt{sigOf}(\mt{constraint} \; c_1 \sim c_2) &=& \mt{constraint} \; c_1 \sim c_2 \\
adamc@538	1275 \mt{sigOf}(\mt{open} \; \mt{constraints} \; M) &=& \cdot \\
adamc@538	1276 \mt{sigOf}(\mt{table} \; x : c) &=& \mt{table} \; x : c \\
adam@1594	1277 \mt{sigOf}(\mt{view} \; x = e) &=& \mt{view} \; x : c \textrm{ (where $\Gamma \vdash e : \mt{Basis}.\mt{sql\_query} \; [] \; [] \; (\mt{map} \; (\lambda \_ \Rightarrow []) \; c') \; c$)} \\
adamc@538	1278 \mt{sigOf}(\mt{sequence} \; x) &=& \mt{sequence} \; x \\
adamc@538	1279 \mt{sigOf}(\mt{cookie} \; x : \tau) &=& \mt{cookie} \; x : \tau \\
adam@1797	1280 \mt{sigOf}(\mt{style} \; x) &=& \mt{style} \; x
adamc@538	1281 \end{eqnarray*}
adamc@539	1282 \begin{eqnarray*}
adamc@539	1283 \mt{selfify}(M, \cdot) &=& \cdot \\
adamc@558	1284 \mt{selfify}(M, s \; \overline{s'}) &=& \mt{selfify}(M, s) \; \mt{selfify}(M, \overline{s'}) \\
adamc@539	1285 \\
adamc@539	1286 \mt{selfify}(M, \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa) &=& \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa = M.x \\
adamc@539	1287 \mt{selfify}(M, \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa = c) &=& \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa = c \\
adamc@539	1288 \mt{selfify}(M, \mt{datatype} \; x \; \overline{y} = \overline{dc}) &=& \mt{datatype} \; x \; \overline{y} = \mt{datatype} \; M.x \\
adamc@539	1289 \mt{selfify}(M, \mt{datatype} \; x = \mt{datatype} \; M'.z) &=& \mt{datatype} \; x = \mt{datatype} \; M'.z \\
adamc@539	1290 \mt{selfify}(M, \mt{val} \; x : \tau) &=& \mt{val} \; x : \tau \\
adamc@539	1291 \mt{selfify}(M, \mt{structure} \; X : S) &=& \mt{structure} \; X : \mt{selfify}(M.X, \overline{s}) \textrm{ (where $\Gamma \vdash S \equiv \mt{sig} \; \overline{s} \; \mt{end}$)} \\
adamc@539	1292 \mt{selfify}(M, \mt{signature} \; X = S) &=& \mt{signature} \; X = S \\
adamc@539	1293 \mt{selfify}(M, \mt{include} \; S) &=& \mt{include} \; S \\
adamc@539	1294 \mt{selfify}(M, \mt{constraint} \; c_1 \sim c_2) &=& \mt{constraint} \; c_1 \sim c_2 \\
adamc@655	1295 \mt{selfify}(M, \mt{class} \; x :: \kappa) &=& \mt{class} \; x :: \kappa = M.x \\
adamc@655	1296 \mt{selfify}(M, \mt{class} \; x :: \kappa = c) &=& \mt{class} \; x :: \kappa = c \\
adamc@539	1297 \end{eqnarray*}
adamc@539	1298
adamc@540	1299 \subsection{Module Projection}
adamc@540	1300
adamc@540	1301 \begin{eqnarray*}
adamc@540	1302 \mt{proj}(M, \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa \; \overline{s}, \mt{con} \; x) &=& \kappa \\
adamc@540	1303 \mt{proj}(M, \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa = c \; \overline{s}, \mt{con} \; x) &=& (\kappa, c) \\
adamc@540	1304 \mt{proj}(M, \mt{datatype} \; x \; \overline{y} = \overline{dc} \; \overline{s}, \mt{con} \; x) &=& \mt{Type}^{\mt{len}(\overline{y})} \to \mt{Type} \\
adamc@540	1305 \mt{proj}(M, \mt{datatype} \; x = \mt{datatype} \; M'.z \; \overline{s}, \mt{con} \; x) &=& (\mt{Type}^{\mt{len}(\overline{y})} \to \mt{Type}, M'.z) \textrm{ (where $\Gamma \vdash M' : \mt{sig} \; \overline{s'} \; \mt{end}$} \\
adamc@540	1306 && \textrm{and $\mt{proj}(M', \overline{s'}, \mt{datatype} \; z) = (\overline{y}, \overline{dc})$)} \\
adamc@655	1307 \mt{proj}(M, \mt{class} \; x :: \kappa \; \overline{s}, \mt{con} \; x) &=& \kappa \to \mt{Type} \\
adamc@655	1308 \mt{proj}(M, \mt{class} \; x :: \kappa = c \; \overline{s}, \mt{con} \; x) &=& (\kappa \to \mt{Type}, c) \\
adamc@540	1309 \\
adamc@540	1310 \mt{proj}(M, \mt{datatype} \; x \; \overline{y} = \overline{dc} \; \overline{s}, \mt{datatype} \; x) &=& (\overline{y}, \overline{dc}) \\
adamc@540	1311 \mt{proj}(M, \mt{datatype} \; x = \mt{datatype} \; M'.z \; \overline{s}, \mt{con} \; x) &=& \mt{proj}(M', \overline{s'}, \mt{datatype} \; z) \textrm{ (where $\Gamma \vdash M' : \mt{sig} \; \overline{s'} \; \mt{end}$)} \\
adamc@540	1312 \\
adamc@540	1313 \mt{proj}(M, \mt{val} \; x : \tau \; \overline{s}, \mt{val} \; x) &=& \tau \\
adamc@540	1314 \mt{proj}(M, \mt{datatype} \; x \; \overline{y} = \overline{dc} \; \overline{s}, \mt{val} \; X) &=& \overline{y ::: \mt{Type}} \to M.x \; \overline y \textrm{ (where $X \in \overline{dc}$)} \\
adamc@540	1315 \mt{proj}(M, \mt{datatype} \; x \; \overline{y} = \overline{dc} \; \overline{s}, \mt{val} \; X) &=& \overline{y ::: \mt{Type}} \to \tau \to M.x \; \overline y \textrm{ (where $X \; \mt{of} \; \tau \in \overline{dc}$)} \\
adamc@540	1316 \mt{proj}(M, \mt{datatype} \; x = \mt{datatype} \; M'.z, \mt{val} \; X) &=& \overline{y ::: \mt{Type}} \to M.x \; \overline y \textrm{ (where $\Gamma \vdash M' : \mt{sig} \; \overline{s'} \; \mt{end}$} \\
adamc@540	1317 && \textrm{and $\mt{proj}(M', \overline{s'}, \mt{datatype} \; z = (\overline{y}, \overline{dc})$ and $X \in \overline{dc}$)} \\
adamc@540	1318 \mt{proj}(M, \mt{datatype} \; x = \mt{datatype} \; M'.z, \mt{val} \; X) &=& \overline{y ::: \mt{Type}} \to \tau \to M.x \; \overline y \textrm{ (where $\Gamma \vdash M' : \mt{sig} \; \overline{s'} \; \mt{end}$} \\
adamc@558	1319 && \textrm{and $\mt{proj}(M', \overline{s'}, \mt{datatype} \; z = (\overline{y}, \overline{dc})$ and $X \; \mt{of} \; \tau \in \overline{dc}$)} \\
adamc@540	1320 \\
adamc@540	1321 \mt{proj}(M, \mt{structure} \; X : S \; \overline{s}, \mt{structure} \; X) &=& S \\
adamc@540	1322 \\
adamc@540	1323 \mt{proj}(M, \mt{signature} \; X = S \; \overline{s}, \mt{signature} \; X) &=& S \\
adamc@540	1324 \\
adamc@540	1325 \mt{proj}(M, \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa \; \overline{s}, V) &=& [x \mapsto M.x]\mt{proj}(M, \overline{s}, V) \\
adamc@540	1326 \mt{proj}(M, \mt{con} \; x :: \kappa = c \; \overline{s}, V) &=& [x \mapsto M.x]\mt{proj}(M, \overline{s}, V) \\
adamc@540	1327 \mt{proj}(M, \mt{datatype} \; x \; \overline{y} = \overline{dc} \; \overline{s}, V) &=& [x \mapsto M.x]\mt{proj}(M, \overline{s}, V) \\
adamc@540	1328 \mt{proj}(M, \mt{datatype} \; x = \mt{datatype} \; M'.z \; \overline{s}, V) &=& [x \mapsto M.x]\mt{proj}(M, \overline{s}, V) \\
adamc@540	1329 \mt{proj}(M, \mt{val} \; x : \tau \; \overline{s}, V) &=& \mt{proj}(M, \overline{s}, V) \\
adamc@540	1330 \mt{proj}(M, \mt{structure} \; X : S \; \overline{s}, V) &=& [X \mapsto M.X]\mt{proj}(M, \overline{s}, V) \\
adamc@540	1331 \mt{proj}(M, \mt{signature} \; X = S \; \overline{s}, V) &=& [X \mapsto M.X]\mt{proj}(M, \overline{s}, V) \\
adamc@540	1332 \mt{proj}(M, \mt{include} \; S \; \overline{s}, V) &=& \mt{proj}(M, \overline{s'} \; \overline{s}, V) \textrm{ (where $\Gamma \vdash S \equiv \mt{sig} \; \overline{s'} \; \mt{end}$)} \\
adamc@540	1333 \mt{proj}(M, \mt{constraint} \; c_1 \sim c_2 \; \overline{s}, V) &=& \mt{proj}(M, \overline{s}, V) \\
adamc@655	1334 \mt{proj}(M, \mt{class} \; x :: \kappa \; \overline{s}, V) &=& [x \mapsto M.x]\mt{proj}(M, \overline{s}, V) \\
adamc@655	1335 \mt{proj}(M, \mt{class} \; x :: \kappa = c \; \overline{s}, V) &=& [x \mapsto M.x]\mt{proj}(M, \overline{s}, V) \\
adamc@540	1336 \end{eqnarray*}
adamc@540	1337
adamc@541	1338
adamc@541	1339 \section{Type Inference}
adamc@541	1340
adamc@541	1341 The Ur/Web compiler uses \emph{heuristic type inference}, with no claims of completeness with respect to the declarative specification of the last section. The rules in use seem to work well in practice. This section summarizes those rules, to help Ur programmers predict what will work and what won't.
adamc@541	1342
adamc@541	1343 \subsection{Basic Unification}
adamc@541	1344
adamc@560	1345 Type-checkers for languages based on the Hindley-Milner type discipline, like ML and Haskell, take advantage of \emph{principal typing} properties, making complete type inference relatively straightforward. Inference algorithms are traditionally implemented using type unification variables, at various points asserting equalities between types, in the process discovering the values of type variables. The Ur/Web compiler uses the same basic strategy, but the complexity of the type system rules out easy completeness.
adamc@541	1346
adamc@656	1347 Type-checking can require evaluating recursive functional programs, thanks to the type-level $\mt{map}$ operator. When a unification variable appears in such a type, the next step of computation can be undetermined. The value of that variable might be determined later, but this would be ``too late'' for the unification problems generated at the first occurrence. This is the essential source of incompleteness.
adamc@541	1348
adamc@541	1349 Nonetheless, the unification engine tends to do reasonably well. Unlike in ML, polymorphism is never inferred in definitions; it must be indicated explicitly by writing out constructor-level parameters. By writing these and other annotations, the programmer can generally get the type inference engine to do most of the type reconstruction work.
adamc@541	1350
adamc@541	1351 \subsection{Unifying Record Types}
adamc@541	1352
adamc@570	1353 The type inference engine tries to take advantage of the algebraic rules governing type-level records, as shown in Section \ref{definitional}. When two constructors of record kind are unified, they are reduced to normal forms, with like terms crossed off from each normal form until, hopefully, nothing remains. This cannot be complete, with the inclusion of unification variables. The type-checker can help you understand what goes wrong when the process fails, as it outputs the unmatched remainders of the two normal forms.
adamc@541	1354
adamc@656	1355 \subsection{\label{typeclasses}Constructor Classes}
adamc@541	1356
adamc@784	1357 Ur includes a constructor class facility inspired by Haskell's. The current version is experimental, with very general Prolog-like facilities that can lead to compile-time non-termination.
adamc@541	1358
adam@1797	1359 Constructor classes are integrated with the module system. A constructor class of kind $\kappa$ is just a constructor of kind $\kappa$. By marking such a constructor $c$ as a constructor class, the programmer instructs the type inference engine to, in each scope, record all values of types $c \; c_1 \; \ldots \; c_n$ as \emph{instances}. Any function argument whose type is of such a form is treated as implicit, to be determined by examining the current instance database. Any suitably kinded constructor within a module may be exposed as a constructor class from outside the module, simply by using a $\mt{class}$ signature item instead of a $\mt{con}$ signature item in the module's signature.
adam@1797	1360
adam@1797	1361 The ``dictionary encoding'' often used in Haskell implementations is made explicit in Ur. Constructor class instances are just properly typed values, and they can also be considered as ``proofs'' of membership in the class. In some cases, it is useful to pass these proofs around explicitly. An underscore written where a proof is expected will also be inferred, if possible, from the current instance database.
adam@1797	1362
adam@1797	1363 Just as for constructors, constructors classes may be exported from modules, and they may be exported as concrete or abstract. Concrete constructor classes have their ``real'' definitions exposed, so that client code may add new instances freely. Automatic inference of concrete class instances will not generally work, so abstract classes are almost always the right choice. They are useful as ``predicates'' that can be used to enforce invariants, as we will see in some definitions of SQL syntax in the Ur/Web standard library. Free extension of a concrete class is easily supported by exporting a constructor function from a module, since the class implementation will be concrete within the module.
adamc@541	1364
adamc@541	1365 \subsection{Reverse-Engineering Record Types}
adamc@541	1366
adamc@656	1367 It's useful to write Ur functions and functors that take record constructors as inputs, but these constructors can grow quite long, even though their values are often implied by other arguments. The compiler uses a simple heuristic to infer the values of unification variables that are mapped over, yielding known results. If the result is empty, we're done; if it's not empty, we replace a single unification variable with a new constructor formed from three new unification variables, as in $[\alpha = \beta] \rc \gamma$. This process can often be repeated to determine a unification variable fully.
adamc@541	1368
adamc@541	1369 \subsection{Implicit Arguments in Functor Applications}
adamc@541	1370
adamc@656	1371 Constructor, constraint, and constructor class witness members of structures may be omitted, when those structures are used in contexts where their assigned signatures imply how to fill in those missing members. This feature combines well with reverse-engineering to allow for uses of complicated meta-programming functors with little more code than would be necessary to invoke an untyped, ad-hoc code generator.
adamc@541	1372
adamc@541	1373
adamc@542	1374 \section{The Ur Standard Library}
adamc@542	1375
adamc@542	1376 The built-in parts of the Ur/Web standard library are described by the signature in \texttt{lib/basis.urs} in the distribution. A module $\mt{Basis}$ ascribing to that signature is available in the initial environment, and every program is implicitly prefixed by $\mt{open} \; \mt{Basis}$.
adamc@542	1377
adamc@542	1378 Additionally, other common functions that are definable within Ur are included in \texttt{lib/top.urs} and \texttt{lib/top.ur}. This $\mt{Top}$ module is also opened implicitly.
adamc@542	1379
adamc@542	1380 The idea behind Ur is to serve as the ideal host for embedded domain-specific languages. For now, however, the ``generic'' functionality is intermixed with Ur/Web-specific functionality, including in these two library modules. We hope that these generic library components have types that speak for themselves. The next section introduces the Ur/Web-specific elements. Here, we only give the type declarations from the beginning of $\mt{Basis}$.
adamc@542	1381 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@542	1382 \mt{type} \; \mt{int} \\
adamc@542	1383 \mt{type} \; \mt{float} \\
adamc@873	1384 \mt{type} \; \mt{char} \\
adamc@542	1385 \mt{type} \; \mt{string} \\
adamc@542	1386 \mt{type} \; \mt{time} \\
adamc@785	1387 \mt{type} \; \mt{blob} \\
adamc@542	1388 \\
adamc@542	1389 \mt{type} \; \mt{unit} = \{\} \\
adamc@542	1390 \\
adamc@542	1391 \mt{datatype} \; \mt{bool} = \mt{False} \mid \mt{True} \\
adamc@542	1392 \\
adamc@785	1393 \mt{datatype} \; \mt{option} \; \mt{t} = \mt{None} \mid \mt{Some} \; \mt{of} \; \mt{t} \\
adamc@785	1394 \\
adamc@785	1395 \mt{datatype} \; \mt{list} \; \mt{t} = \mt{Nil} \mid \mt{Cons} \; \mt{of} \; \mt{t} \times \mt{list} \; \mt{t}
adamc@542	1396 \end{array}$$
adamc@542	1397
adamc@1123	1398 The only unusual element of this list is the $\mt{blob}$ type, which stands for binary sequences. Simple blobs can be created from strings via $\mt{Basis.textBlob}$. Blobs will also be generated from HTTP file uploads.
adamc@785	1399
adam@1297	1400 Ur also supports \emph{polymorphic variants}, a dual to extensible records that has been popularized by OCaml. A type $\mt{variant} \; r$ represents an $n$-ary sum type, with one constructor for each field of record $r$. Each constructor $c$ takes an argument of type $r.c$; the type $\{\}$ can be used to ``simulate'' a nullary constructor. The \cd{make} function builds a variant value, while \cd{match} implements pattern-matching, with match cases represented as records of functions.
adam@1297	1401 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1297	1402 \mt{con} \; \mt{variant} :: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{Type} \\
adam@1297	1403 \mt{val} \; \mt{make} : \mt{nm} :: \mt{Name} \to \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{ts} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to [[\mt{nm}] \sim \mt{ts}] \Rightarrow \mt{t} \to \mt{variant} \; ([\mt{nm} = \mt{t}] \rc \mt{ts}) \\
adam@1297	1404 \mt{val} \; \mt{match} : \mt{ts} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{variant} \; \mt{ts} \to \$(\mt{map} \; (\lambda \mt{t'} \Rightarrow \mt{t'} \to \mt{t}) \; \mt{ts}) \to \mt{t}
adam@1297	1405 \end{array}$$
adam@1297	1406
adamc@657	1407 Another important generic Ur element comes at the beginning of \texttt{top.urs}.
adamc@657	1408
adamc@657	1409 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@657	1410 \mt{con} \; \mt{folder} :: \mt{K} \longrightarrow \{\mt{K}\} \to \mt{Type} \\
adamc@657	1411 \\
adamc@657	1412 \mt{val} \; \mt{fold} : \mt{K} \longrightarrow \mt{tf} :: (\{\mt{K}\} \to \mt{Type}) \\
adamc@657	1413 \hspace{.1in} \to (\mt{nm} :: \mt{Name} \to \mt{v} :: \mt{K} \to \mt{r} :: \{\mt{K}\} \to [[\mt{nm}] \sim \mt{r}] \Rightarrow \\
adamc@657	1414 \hspace{.2in} \mt{tf} \; \mt{r} \to \mt{tf} \; ([\mt{nm} = \mt{v}] \rc \mt{r})) \\
adamc@657	1415 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{tf} \; [] \\
adamc@657	1416 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{r} :: \{\mt{K}\} \to \mt{folder} \; \mt{r} \to \mt{tf} \; \mt{r}
adamc@657	1417 \end{array}$$
adamc@657	1418
adamc@657	1419 For a type-level record $\mt{r}$, a $\mt{folder} \; \mt{r}$ encodes a permutation of $\mt{r}$'s elements. The $\mt{fold}$ function can be called on a $\mt{folder}$ to iterate over the elements of $\mt{r}$ in that order. $\mt{fold}$ is parameterized on a type-level function to be used to calculate the type of each intermediate result of folding. After processing a subset $\mt{r'}$ of $\mt{r}$'s entries, the type of the accumulator should be $\mt{tf} \; \mt{r'}$. The next two expression arguments to $\mt{fold}$ are the usual step function and initial accumulator, familiar from fold functions over lists. The final two arguments are the record to fold over and a $\mt{folder}$ for it.
adamc@657	1420
adamc@664	1421 The Ur compiler treats $\mt{folder}$ like a constructor class, using built-in rules to infer $\mt{folder}$s for records with known structure. The order in which field names are mentioned in source code is used as a hint about the permutation that the programmer would like.
adamc@657	1422
adamc@542	1423
adamc@542	1424 \section{The Ur/Web Standard Library}
adamc@542	1425
adam@1400	1426 Some operations are only allowed in server-side code or only in client-side code. The type system does not enforce such restrictions, but the compiler enforces them in the process of whole-program compilation. In the discussion below, we note when a set of operations has a location restriction.
adam@1400	1427
adamc@658	1428 \subsection{Monads}
adamc@658	1429
adamc@658	1430 The Ur Basis defines the monad constructor class from Haskell.
adamc@658	1431
adamc@658	1432 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@658	1433 \mt{class} \; \mt{monad} :: \mt{Type} \to \mt{Type} \\
adamc@658	1434 \mt{val} \; \mt{return} : \mt{m} ::: (\mt{Type} \to \mt{Type}) \to \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \\
adamc@658	1435 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{monad} \; \mt{m} \\
adamc@658	1436 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{t} \to \mt{m} \; \mt{t} \\
adamc@658	1437 \mt{val} \; \mt{bind} : \mt{m} ::: (\mt{Type} \to \mt{Type}) \to \mt{t1} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{t2} ::: \mt{Type} \\
adamc@658	1438 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{monad} \; \mt{m} \\
adamc@658	1439 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{m} \; \mt{t1} \to (\mt{t1} \to \mt{m} \; \mt{t2}) \\
adam@1544	1440 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{m} \; \mt{t2} \\
adam@1544	1441 \mt{val} \; \mt{mkMonad} : \mt{m} ::: (\mt{Type} \to \mt{Type}) \\
adam@1544	1442 \hspace{.1in} \to \{\mt{Return} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{t} \to \mt{m} \; \mt{t}, \\
adam@1544	1443 \hspace{.3in} \mt{Bind} : \mt{t1} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{t2} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{m} \; \mt{t1} \to (\mt{t1} \to \mt{m} \; \mt{t2}) \to \mt{m} \; \mt{t2}\} \\
adam@1544	1444 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{monad} \; \mt{m}
adamc@658	1445 \end{array}$$
adamc@658	1446
adam@1687	1447 The Ur/Web compiler provides syntactic sugar for monads, similar to Haskell's \cd{do} notation. An expression $x \leftarrow e_1; e_2$ is desugared to $\mt{bind} \; e_1 \; (\lambda x \Rightarrow e_2)$, and an expression $e_1; e_2$ is desugared to $\mt{bind} \; e_1 \; (\lambda () \Rightarrow e_2)$. Note a difference from Haskell: as the $e_1; e_2$ case desugaring involves a function with $()$ as its formal argument, the type of $e_1$ must be of the form $m \; \{\}$, rather than some arbitrary $m \; t$.
adam@1548	1448
adam@2009	1449 The syntactic sugar also allows $p \leftarrow e_1; e_2$ for $p$ a pattern. The pattern should be guaranteed to match any value of the corresponding type, or there will be a compile-time error.
adam@2009	1450
adamc@542	1451 \subsection{Transactions}
adamc@542	1452
adamc@542	1453 Ur is a pure language; we use Haskell's trick to support controlled side effects. The standard library defines a monad $\mt{transaction}$, meant to stand for actions that may be undone cleanly. By design, no other kinds of actions are supported.
adamc@542	1454 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@542	1455 \mt{con} \; \mt{transaction} :: \mt{Type} \to \mt{Type} \\
adamc@658	1456 \mt{val} \; \mt{transaction\_monad} : \mt{monad} \; \mt{transaction}
adamc@542	1457 \end{array}$$
adamc@542	1458
adamc@1123	1459 For debugging purposes, a transactional function is provided for outputting a string on the server process' \texttt{stderr}.
adamc@1123	1460 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@1123	1461 \mt{val} \; \mt{debug} : \mt{string} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit}
adamc@1123	1462 \end{array}$$
adamc@1123	1463
adamc@542	1464 \subsection{HTTP}
adamc@542	1465
adam@1797	1466 There are transactions for reading an HTTP header by name and for getting and setting strongly typed cookies. Cookies may only be created by the $\mt{cookie}$ declaration form, ensuring that they be named consistently based on module structure. For now, cookie operations are server-side only.
adamc@542	1467 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@786	1468 \mt{con} \; \mt{http\_cookie} :: \mt{Type} \to \mt{Type} \\
adamc@786	1469 \mt{val} \; \mt{getCookie} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{http\_cookie} \; \mt{t} \to \mt{transaction} \; (\mt{option} \; \mt{t}) \\
adamc@1050	1470 \mt{val} \; \mt{setCookie} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{http\_cookie} \; \mt{t} \to \{\mt{Value} : \mt{t}, \mt{Expires} : \mt{option} \; \mt{time}, \mt{Secure} : \mt{bool}\} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit} \\
adamc@1050	1471 \mt{val} \; \mt{clearCookie} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{http\_cookie} \; \mt{t} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit}
adamc@786	1472 \end{array}$$
adamc@786	1473
adamc@786	1474 There are also an abstract $\mt{url}$ type and functions for converting to it, based on the policy defined by \texttt{[allow\|deny] url} directives in the project file.
adamc@786	1475 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@786	1476 \mt{type} \; \mt{url} \\
adamc@786	1477 \mt{val} \; \mt{bless} : \mt{string} \to \mt{url} \\
adamc@786	1478 \mt{val} \; \mt{checkUrl} : \mt{string} \to \mt{option} \; \mt{url}
adamc@786	1479 \end{array}$$
adamc@786	1480 $\mt{bless}$ raises a runtime error if the string passed to it fails the URL policy.
adamc@786	1481
adam@1400	1482 It is possible to grab the current page's URL or to build a URL for an arbitrary transaction that would also be an acceptable value of a \texttt{link} attribute of the \texttt{a} tag. These are server-side operations.
adamc@1085	1483 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@1085	1484 \mt{val} \; \mt{currentUrl} : \mt{transaction} \; \mt{url} \\
adamc@1085	1485 \mt{val} \; \mt{url} : \mt{transaction} \; \mt{page} \to \mt{url}
adamc@1085	1486 \end{array}$$
adamc@1085	1487
adamc@1085	1488 Page generation may be interrupted at any time with a request to redirect to a particular URL instead.
adamc@1085	1489 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@1085	1490 \mt{val} \; \mt{redirect} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{url} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{t}
adamc@1085	1491 \end{array}$$
adamc@1085	1492
adam@1400	1493 It's possible for pages to return files of arbitrary MIME types. A file can be input from the user using this data type, along with the $\mt{upload}$ form tag. These functions and those described in the following paragraph are server-side.
adamc@786	1494 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@786	1495 \mt{type} \; \mt{file} \\
adamc@786	1496 \mt{val} \; \mt{fileName} : \mt{file} \to \mt{option} \; \mt{string} \\
adamc@786	1497 \mt{val} \; \mt{fileMimeType} : \mt{file} \to \mt{string} \\
adamc@786	1498 \mt{val} \; \mt{fileData} : \mt{file} \to \mt{blob}
adamc@786	1499 \end{array}$$
adamc@786	1500
adam@1799	1501 It is also possible to get HTTP request headers and environment variables, and set HTTP response headers, using abstract types similar to the one for URLs.
adam@1465	1502
adam@1465	1503 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1465	1504 \mt{type} \; \mt{requestHeader} \\
adam@1465	1505 \mt{val} \; \mt{blessRequestHeader} : \mt{string} \to \mt{requestHeader} \\
adam@1465	1506 \mt{val} \; \mt{checkRequestHeader} : \mt{string} \to \mt{option} \; \mt{requestHeader} \\
adam@1465	1507 \mt{val} \; \mt{getHeader} : \mt{requestHeader} \to \mt{transaction} \; (\mt{option} \; \mt{string}) \\
adam@1465	1508 \\
adam@1799	1509 \mt{type} \; \mt{envVar} \\
adam@1799	1510 \mt{val} \; \mt{blessEnvVar} : \mt{string} \to \mt{envVar} \\
adam@1799	1511 \mt{val} \; \mt{checkEnvVar} : \mt{string} \to \mt{option} \; \mt{envVar} \\
adam@1799	1512 \mt{val} \; \mt{getenv} : \mt{envVar} \to \mt{transaction} \; (\mt{option} \; \mt{string}) \\
adam@1799	1513 \\
adam@1465	1514 \mt{type} \; \mt{responseHeader} \\
adam@1465	1515 \mt{val} \; \mt{blessResponseHeader} : \mt{string} \to \mt{responseHeader} \\
adam@1465	1516 \mt{val} \; \mt{checkResponseHeader} : \mt{string} \to \mt{option} \; \mt{responseHeader} \\
adam@1465	1517 \mt{val} \; \mt{setHeader} : \mt{responseHeader} \to \mt{string} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit}
adam@1465	1518 \end{array}$$
adam@1465	1519
adamc@786	1520 A blob can be extracted from a file and returned as the page result. There are bless and check functions for MIME types analogous to those for URLs.
adamc@786	1521 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@786	1522 \mt{type} \; \mt{mimeType} \\
adamc@786	1523 \mt{val} \; \mt{blessMime} : \mt{string} \to \mt{mimeType} \\
adamc@786	1524 \mt{val} \; \mt{checkMime} : \mt{string} \to \mt{option} \; \mt{mimeType} \\
adamc@786	1525 \mt{val} \; \mt{returnBlob} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{blob} \to \mt{mimeType} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{t}
adamc@542	1526 \end{array}$$
adamc@542	1527
adamc@543	1528 \subsection{SQL}
adamc@543	1529
adam@1400	1530 Everything about SQL database access is restricted to server-side code.
adam@1400	1531
adamc@543	1532 The fundamental unit of interest in the embedding of SQL is tables, described by a type family and creatable only via the $\mt{table}$ declaration form.
adamc@543	1533 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@785	1534 \mt{con} \; \mt{sql\_table} :: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \{\{\mt{Unit}\}\} \to \mt{Type}
adamc@785	1535 \end{array}$$
adamc@785	1536 The first argument to this constructor gives the names and types of a table's columns, and the second argument gives the set of valid keys. Keys are the only subsets of the columns that may be referenced as foreign keys. Each key has a name.
adamc@785	1537
adamc@785	1538 We also have the simpler type family of SQL views, which have no keys.
adamc@785	1539 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@785	1540 \mt{con} \; \mt{sql\_view} :: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{Type}
adamc@543	1541 \end{array}$$
adamc@543	1542
adamc@785	1543 A multi-parameter type class is used to allow tables and views to be used interchangeably, with a way of extracting the set of columns from each.
adamc@785	1544 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@785	1545 \mt{class} \; \mt{fieldsOf} :: \mt{Type} \to \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{Type} \\
adamc@785	1546 \mt{val} \; \mt{fieldsOf\_table} : \mt{fs} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{keys} ::: \{\{\mt{Unit}\}\} \to \mt{fieldsOf} \; (\mt{sql\_table} \; \mt{fs} \; \mt{keys}) \; \mt{fs} \\
adamc@785	1547 \mt{val} \; \mt{fieldsOf\_view} : \mt{fs} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{fieldsOf} \; (\mt{sql\_view} \; \mt{fs}) \; \mt{fs}
adamc@785	1548 \end{array}$$
adamc@785	1549
adamc@785	1550 \subsubsection{Table Constraints}
adamc@785	1551
adamc@785	1552 Tables may be declared with constraints, such that database modifications that violate the constraints are blocked. A table may have at most one \texttt{PRIMARY KEY} constraint, which gives the subset of columns that will most often be used to look up individual rows in the table.
adamc@785	1553
adamc@785	1554 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@785	1555 \mt{con} \; \mt{primary\_key} :: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \{\{\mt{Unit}\}\} \to \mt{Type} \\
adamc@785	1556 \mt{val} \; \mt{no\_primary\_key} : \mt{fs} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{primary\_key} \; \mt{fs} \; [] \\
adamc@785	1557 \mt{val} \; \mt{primary\_key} : \mt{rest} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{key1} :: \mt{Name} \to \mt{keys} :: \{\mt{Type}\} \\
adamc@785	1558 \hspace{.1in} \to [[\mt{key1}] \sim \mt{keys}] \Rightarrow [[\mt{key1} = \mt{t}] \rc \mt{keys} \sim \mt{rest}] \\
adamc@785	1559 \hspace{.1in} \Rightarrow \$([\mt{key1} = \mt{sql\_injectable\_prim} \; \mt{t}] \rc \mt{map} \; \mt{sql\_injectable\_prim} \; \mt{keys}) \\
adamc@785	1560 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{primary\_key} \; ([\mt{key1} = \mt{t}] \rc \mt{keys} \rc \mt{rest}) \; [\mt{Pkey} = [\mt{key1}] \rc \mt{map} \; (\lambda \_ \Rightarrow ()) \; \mt{keys}]
adamc@785	1561 \end{array}$$
adamc@785	1562 The type class $\mt{sql\_injectable\_prim}$ characterizes which types are allowed in SQL and are not $\mt{option}$ types. In SQL, a \texttt{PRIMARY KEY} constraint enforces after-the-fact that a column may not contain \texttt{NULL}s, but Ur/Web forces that information to be included in table types from the beginning. Thus, the only effect of this kind of constraint in Ur/Web is to enforce uniqueness of the given key within the table.
adamc@785	1563
adamc@785	1564 A type family stands for sets of named constraints of the remaining varieties.
adamc@785	1565 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@785	1566 \mt{con} \; \mt{sql\_constraints} :: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \{\{\mt{Unit}\}\} \to \mt{Type}
adamc@785	1567 \end{array}$$
adamc@785	1568 The first argument gives the column types of the table being constrained, and the second argument maps constraint names to the keys that they define. Constraints that don't define keys are mapped to ``empty keys.''
adamc@785	1569
adamc@785	1570 There is a type family of individual, unnamed constraints.
adamc@785	1571 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@785	1572 \mt{con} \; \mt{sql\_constraint} :: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \{\mt{Unit}\} \to \mt{Type}
adamc@785	1573 \end{array}$$
adamc@785	1574 The first argument is the same as above, and the second argument gives the key columns for just this constraint.
adamc@785	1575
adamc@785	1576 We have operations for assembling constraints into constraint sets.
adamc@785	1577 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@785	1578 \mt{val} \; \mt{no\_constraint} : \mt{fs} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{sql\_constraints} \; \mt{fs} \; [] \\
adamc@785	1579 \mt{val} \; \mt{one\_constraint} : \mt{fs} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{unique} ::: \{\mt{Unit}\} \to \mt{name} :: \mt{Name} \\
adamc@785	1580 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_constraint} \; \mt{fs} \; \mt{unique} \to \mt{sql\_constraints} \; \mt{fs} \; [\mt{name} = \mt{unique}] \\
adamc@785	1581 \mt{val} \; \mt{join\_constraints} : \mt{fs} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{uniques1} ::: \{\{\mt{Unit}\}\} \to \mt{uniques2} ::: \{\{\mt{Unit}\}\} \to [\mt{uniques1} \sim \mt{uniques2}] \\
adamc@785	1582 \hspace{.1in} \Rightarrow \mt{sql\_constraints} \; \mt{fs} \; \mt{uniques1} \to \mt{sql\_constraints} \; \mt{fs} \; \mt{uniques2} \to \mt{sql\_constraints} \; \mt{fs} \; (\mt{uniques1} \rc \mt{uniques2})
adamc@785	1583 \end{array}$$
adamc@785	1584
adamc@785	1585 A \texttt{UNIQUE} constraint forces a set of columns to be a key, which means that no combination of column values may occur more than once in the table. The $\mt{unique1}$ and $\mt{unique}$ arguments are separated out only to ensure that empty \texttt{UNIQUE} constraints are rejected.
adamc@785	1586 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@785	1587 \mt{val} \; \mt{unique} : \mt{rest} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{unique1} :: \mt{Name} \to \mt{unique} :: \{\mt{Type}\} \\
adamc@785	1588 \hspace{.1in} \to [[\mt{unique1}] \sim \mt{unique}] \Rightarrow [[\mt{unique1} = \mt{t}] \rc \mt{unique} \sim \mt{rest}] \\
adamc@785	1589 \hspace{.1in} \Rightarrow \mt{sql\_constraint} \; ([\mt{unique1} = \mt{t}] \rc \mt{unique} \rc \mt{rest}) \; ([\mt{unique1}] \rc \mt{map} \; (\lambda \_ \Rightarrow ()) \; \mt{unique})
adamc@785	1590 \end{array}$$
adamc@785	1591
adamc@785	1592 A \texttt{FOREIGN KEY} constraint connects a set of local columns to a local or remote key, enforcing that the local columns always reference an existent row of the foreign key's table. A local column of type $\mt{t}$ may be linked to a foreign column of type $\mt{option} \; \mt{t}$, and vice versa. We formalize that notion with a type class.
adamc@785	1593 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@785	1594 \mt{class} \; \mt{linkable} :: \mt{Type} \to \mt{Type} \to \mt{Type} \\
adamc@785	1595 \mt{val} \; \mt{linkable\_same} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{linkable} \; \mt{t} \; \mt{t} \\
adamc@785	1596 \mt{val} \; \mt{linkable\_from\_nullable} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{linkable} \; (\mt{option} \; \mt{t}) \; \mt{t} \\
adamc@785	1597 \mt{val} \; \mt{linkable\_to\_nullable} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{linkable} \; \mt{t} \; (\mt{option} \; \mt{t})
adamc@785	1598 \end{array}$$
adamc@785	1599
adamc@785	1600 The $\mt{matching}$ type family uses $\mt{linkable}$ to define when two keys match up type-wise.
adamc@785	1601 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@785	1602 \mt{con} \; \mt{matching} :: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{Type} \\
adamc@785	1603 \mt{val} \; \mt{mat\_nil} : \mt{matching} \; [] \; [] \\
adamc@785	1604 \mt{val} \; \mt{mat\_cons} : \mt{t1} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{rest1} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{t2} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{rest2} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{nm1} :: \mt{Name} \to \mt{nm2} :: \mt{Name} \\
adamc@785	1605 \hspace{.1in} \to [[\mt{nm1}] \sim \mt{rest1}] \Rightarrow [[\mt{nm2}] \sim \mt{rest2}] \Rightarrow \mt{linkable} \; \mt{t1} \; \mt{t2} \to \mt{matching} \; \mt{rest1} \; \mt{rest2} \\
adamc@785	1606 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{matching} \; ([\mt{nm1} = \mt{t1}] \rc \mt{rest1}) \; ([\mt{nm2} = \mt{t2}] \rc \mt{rest2})
adamc@785	1607 \end{array}$$
adamc@785	1608
adamc@785	1609 SQL provides a number of different propagation modes for \texttt{FOREIGN KEY} constraints, governing what happens when a row containing a still-referenced foreign key value is deleted or modified to have a different key value. The argument of a propagation mode's type gives the local key type.
adamc@785	1610 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@785	1611 \mt{con} \; \mt{propagation\_mode} :: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{Type} \\
adamc@785	1612 \mt{val} \; \mt{restrict} : \mt{fs} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{propagation\_mode} \; \mt{fs} \\
adamc@785	1613 \mt{val} \; \mt{cascade} : \mt{fs} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{propagation\_mode} \; \mt{fs} \\
adamc@785	1614 \mt{val} \; \mt{no\_action} : \mt{fs} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{propagation\_mode} \; \mt{fs} \\
adamc@785	1615 \mt{val} \; \mt{set\_null} : \mt{fs} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{propagation\_mode} \; (\mt{map} \; \mt{option} \; \mt{fs})
adamc@785	1616 \end{array}$$
adamc@785	1617
adamc@785	1618 Finally, we put these ingredient together to define the \texttt{FOREIGN KEY} constraint function.
adamc@785	1619 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@785	1620 \mt{val} \; \mt{foreign\_key} : \mt{mine1} ::: \mt{Name} \to \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{mine} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{munused} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{foreign} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \\
adamc@785	1621 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{funused} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{nm} ::: \mt{Name} \to \mt{uniques} ::: \{\{\mt{Unit}\}\} \\
adamc@785	1622 \hspace{.1in} \to [[\mt{mine1}] \sim \mt{mine}] \Rightarrow [[\mt{mine1} = \mt{t}] \rc \mt{mine} \sim \mt{munused}] \Rightarrow [\mt{foreign} \sim \mt{funused}] \Rightarrow [[\mt{nm}] \sim \mt{uniques}] \\
adamc@785	1623 \hspace{.1in} \Rightarrow \mt{matching} \; ([\mt{mine1} = \mt{t}] \rc \mt{mine}) \; \mt{foreign} \\
adamc@785	1624 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_table} \; (\mt{foreign} \rc \mt{funused}) \; ([\mt{nm} = \mt{map} \; (\lambda \_ \Rightarrow ()) \; \mt{foreign}] \rc \mt{uniques}) \\
adamc@785	1625 \hspace{.1in} \to \{\mt{OnDelete} : \mt{propagation\_mode} \; ([\mt{mine1} = \mt{t}] \rc \mt{mine}), \\
adamc@785	1626 \hspace{.2in} \mt{OnUpdate} : \mt{propagation\_mode} \; ([\mt{mine1} = \mt{t}] \rc \mt{mine})\} \\
adamc@785	1627 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_constraint} \; ([\mt{mine1} = \mt{t}] \rc \mt{mine} \rc \mt{munused}) \; []
adamc@785	1628 \end{array}$$
adamc@785	1629
adamc@785	1630 The last kind of constraint is a \texttt{CHECK} constraint, which attaches a boolean invariant over a row's contents. It is defined using the $\mt{sql\_exp}$ type family, which we discuss in more detail below.
adamc@785	1631 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1778	1632 \mt{val} \; \mt{check} : \mt{fs} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; [] \; [] \; \mt{fs} \; \mt{bool} \to \mt{sql\_constraint} \; \mt{fs} \; []
adamc@785	1633 \end{array}$$
adamc@785	1634
adamc@785	1635 Section \ref{tables} shows the expanded syntax of the $\mt{table}$ declaration and signature item that includes constraints. There is no other way to use constraints with SQL in Ur/Web.
adamc@785	1636
adamc@784	1637
adamc@543	1638 \subsubsection{Queries}
adamc@543	1639
adam@1400	1640 A final query is constructed via the $\mt{sql\_query}$ function. Constructor arguments respectively specify the unrestricted free table variables (which will only be available in subqueries), the free table variables that may only be mentioned within arguments to aggregate functions, table fields we select (as records mapping tables to the subsets of their fields that we choose), and the (always named) extra expressions that we select.
adamc@543	1641 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1400	1642 \mt{con} \; \mt{sql\_query} :: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{Type} \\
adamc@1193	1643 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_query} : \mt{free} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \\
adam@1400	1644 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{afree} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \\
adamc@1193	1645 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{tables} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \\
adamc@543	1646 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{selectedFields} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \\
adamc@543	1647 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{selectedExps} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \\
adamc@1193	1648 \hspace{.1in} \to [\mt{free} \sim \mt{tables}] \\
adam@1400	1649 \hspace{.1in} \Rightarrow \{\mt{Rows} : \mt{sql\_query1} \; \mt{free} \; \mt{afree} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{selectedFields} \; \mt{selectedExps}, \\
adamc@1193	1650 \hspace{.2in} \mt{OrderBy} : \mt{sql\_order\_by} \; (\mt{free} \rc \mt{tables}) \; \mt{selectedExps}, \\
adamc@543	1651 \hspace{.2in} \mt{Limit} : \mt{sql\_limit}, \\
adamc@543	1652 \hspace{.2in} \mt{Offset} : \mt{sql\_offset}\} \\
adam@1400	1653 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_query} \; \mt{free} \; \mt{afree} \; \mt{selectedFields} \; \mt{selectedExps}
adamc@543	1654 \end{array}$$
adamc@543	1655
adamc@545	1656 Queries are used by folding over their results inside transactions.
adamc@545	1657 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1400	1658 \mt{val} \; \mt{query} : \mt{tables} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{exps} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to [\mt{tables} \sim \mt{exps}] \Rightarrow \mt{state} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{sql\_query} \; [] \; [] \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{exps} \\
adamc@658	1659 \hspace{.1in} \to (\$(\mt{exps} \rc \mt{map} \; (\lambda \mt{fields} :: \{\mt{Type}\} \Rightarrow \$\mt{fields}) \; \mt{tables}) \\
adamc@545	1660 \hspace{.2in} \to \mt{state} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{state}) \\
adamc@545	1661 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{state} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{state}
adamc@545	1662 \end{array}$$
adamc@545	1663
adam@1400	1664 Most of the complexity of the query encoding is in the type $\mt{sql\_query1}$, which includes simple queries and derived queries based on relational operators. Constructor arguments respectively specify the unrestricted free table veriables, the aggregate-only free table variables, the tables we select from, the subset of fields that we keep from each table for the result rows, and the extra expressions that we select.
adamc@543	1665 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1400	1666 \mt{con} \; \mt{sql\_query1} :: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{Type} \\
adamc@543	1667 \\
adamc@543	1668 \mt{type} \; \mt{sql\_relop} \\
adamc@543	1669 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_union} : \mt{sql\_relop} \\
adamc@543	1670 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_intersect} : \mt{sql\_relop} \\
adamc@543	1671 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_except} : \mt{sql\_relop} \\
adam@1400	1672 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_relop} : \mt{free} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \\
adam@1400	1673 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{afree} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \\
adam@1400	1674 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{tables1} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \\
adamc@543	1675 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{tables2} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \\
adamc@543	1676 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{selectedFields} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \\
adamc@543	1677 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{selectedExps} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \\
adamc@543	1678 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_relop} \\
adam@1458	1679 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{bool} \; (* \; \mt{ALL} \; *) \\
adam@1400	1680 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_query1} \; \mt{free} \; \mt{afree} \; \mt{tables1} \; \mt{selectedFields} \; \mt{selectedExps} \\
adam@1400	1681 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_query1} \; \mt{free} \; \mt{afree} \; \mt{tables2} \; \mt{selectedFields} \; \mt{selectedExps} \\
adam@1400	1682 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_query1} \; \mt{free} \; \mt{afree} \; \mt{selectedFields} \; \mt{selectedFields} \; \mt{selectedExps}
adamc@543	1683 \end{array}$$
adamc@543	1684
adamc@543	1685 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@1193	1686 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_query1} : \mt{free} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \\
adam@1400	1687 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{afree} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \\
adamc@1193	1688 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{tables} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \\
adamc@543	1689 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{grouped} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \\
adamc@543	1690 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{selectedFields} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \\
adamc@543	1691 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{selectedExps} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \\
adamc@1085	1692 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{empties} :: \{\mt{Unit}\} \\
adamc@1193	1693 \hspace{.1in} \to [\mt{free} \sim \mt{tables}] \\
adamc@1193	1694 \hspace{.1in} \Rightarrow [\mt{free} \sim \mt{grouped}] \\
adam@1400	1695 \hspace{.1in} \Rightarrow [\mt{afree} \sim \mt{tables}] \\
adamc@1193	1696 \hspace{.1in} \Rightarrow [\mt{empties} \sim \mt{selectedFields}] \\
adamc@1085	1697 \hspace{.1in} \Rightarrow \{\mt{Distinct} : \mt{bool}, \\
adamc@1193	1698 \hspace{.2in} \mt{From} : \mt{sql\_from\_items} \; \mt{free} \; \mt{tables}, \\
adam@1778	1699 \hspace{.2in} \mt{Where} : \mt{sql\_exp} \; (\mt{free} \rc \mt{tables}) \; \mt{afree} \; [] \; \mt{bool}, \\
adamc@543	1700 \hspace{.2in} \mt{GroupBy} : \mt{sql\_subset} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{grouped}, \\
adam@1778	1701 \hspace{.2in} \mt{Having} : \mt{sql\_exp} \; (\mt{free} \rc \mt{grouped}) \; (\mt{afree} \rc \mt{tables}) \; [] \; \mt{bool}, \\
adamc@1085	1702 \hspace{.2in} \mt{SelectFields} : \mt{sql\_subset} \; \mt{grouped} \; (\mt{map} \; (\lambda \_ \Rightarrow []) \; \mt{empties} \rc \mt{selectedFields}), \\
adam@1778	1703 \hspace{.2in} \mt {SelectExps} : \$(\mt{map} \; (\mt{sql\_expw} \; (\mt{free} \rc \mt{grouped}) \; (\mt{afree} \rc \mt{tables}) \; []) \; \mt{selectedExps}) \} \\
adam@1400	1704 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_query1} \; \mt{free} \; \mt{afree} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{selectedFields} \; \mt{selectedExps}
adamc@543	1705 \end{array}$$
adamc@543	1706
adamc@543	1707 To encode projection of subsets of fields in $\mt{SELECT}$ clauses, and to encode $\mt{GROUP} \; \mt{BY}$ clauses, we rely on a type family $\mt{sql\_subset}$, capturing what it means for one record of table fields to be a subset of another. The main constructor $\mt{sql\_subset}$ ``proves subset facts'' by requiring a split of a record into kept and dropped parts. The extra constructor $\mt{sql\_subset\_all}$ is a convenience for keeping all fields of a record.
adamc@543	1708 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@543	1709 \mt{con} \; \mt{sql\_subset} :: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{Type} \\
adamc@543	1710 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_subset} : \mt{keep\_drop} :: \{(\{\mt{Type}\} \times \{\mt{Type}\})\} \\
adamc@543	1711 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_subset} \\
adamc@658	1712 \hspace{.2in} (\mt{map} \; (\lambda \mt{fields} :: (\{\mt{Type}\} \times \{\mt{Type}\}) \Rightarrow \mt{fields}.1 \rc \mt{fields}.2)\; \mt{keep\_drop}) \\
adamc@658	1713 \hspace{.2in} (\mt{map} \; (\lambda \mt{fields} :: (\{\mt{Type}\} \times \{\mt{Type}\}) \Rightarrow \mt{fields}.1) \; \mt{keep\_drop}) \\
adamc@543	1714 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_subset\_all} : \mt{tables} :: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{sql\_subset} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{tables}
adamc@543	1715 \end{array}$$
adamc@543	1716
adam@1778	1717 SQL expressions are used in several places, including $\mt{SELECT}$, $\mt{WHERE}$, $\mt{HAVING}$, and $\mt{ORDER} \; \mt{BY}$ clauses. They reify a fragment of the standard SQL expression language, while making it possible to inject ``native'' Ur values in some places. The arguments to the $\mt{sql\_exp}$ type family respectively give the unrestricted-availability table fields, the table fields that may only be used in arguments to aggregate functions, the available selected expressions, and the type of the expression.
adamc@543	1718 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1778	1719 \mt{con} \; \mt{sql\_exp} :: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{Type} \to \mt{Type}
adamc@543	1720 \end{array}$$
adamc@543	1721
adamc@543	1722 Any field in scope may be converted to an expression.
adamc@543	1723 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@543	1724 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_field} : \mt{otherTabs} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{otherFields} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \\
adam@1778	1725 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{fieldType} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{agg} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \\
adamc@543	1726 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{exps} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \\
adamc@543	1727 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{tab} :: \mt{Name} \to \mt{field} :: \mt{Name} \\
adam@1778	1728 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; ([\mt{tab} = [\mt{field} = \mt{fieldType}] \rc \mt{otherFields}] \rc \mt{otherTabs}) \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{fieldType}
adamc@543	1729 \end{array}$$
adamc@543	1730
adamc@544	1731 There is an analogous function for referencing named expressions.
adamc@544	1732 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1778	1733 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_exp} : \mt{tabs} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{agg} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{rest} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{nm} :: \mt{Name} \\
adam@1778	1734 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; \mt{tabs} \; \mt{agg} \; ([\mt{nm} = \mt{t}] \rc \mt{rest}) \; \mt{t}
adamc@544	1735 \end{array}$$
adamc@544	1736
adamc@544	1737 Ur values of appropriate types may be injected into SQL expressions.
adamc@544	1738 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@786	1739 \mt{class} \; \mt{sql\_injectable\_prim} \\
adamc@786	1740 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_bool} : \mt{sql\_injectable\_prim} \; \mt{bool} \\
adamc@786	1741 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_int} : \mt{sql\_injectable\_prim} \; \mt{int} \\
adamc@786	1742 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_float} : \mt{sql\_injectable\_prim} \; \mt{float} \\
adamc@786	1743 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_string} : \mt{sql\_injectable\_prim} \; \mt{string} \\
adamc@786	1744 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_time} : \mt{sql\_injectable\_prim} \; \mt{time} \\
adamc@786	1745 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_blob} : \mt{sql\_injectable\_prim} \; \mt{blob} \\
adamc@786	1746 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_channel} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{sql\_injectable\_prim} \; (\mt{channel} \; \mt{t}) \\
adamc@786	1747 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_client} : \mt{sql\_injectable\_prim} \; \mt{client} \\
adamc@786	1748 \\
adamc@544	1749 \mt{class} \; \mt{sql\_injectable} \\
adamc@786	1750 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_prim} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{sql\_injectable\_prim} \; \mt{t} \to \mt{sql\_injectable} \; \mt{t} \\
adamc@786	1751 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_option\_prim} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{sql\_injectable\_prim} \; \mt{t} \to \mt{sql\_injectable} \; (\mt{option} \; \mt{t}) \\
adamc@786	1752 \\
adam@1778	1753 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_inject} : \mt{tables} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{agg} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{exps} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{sql\_injectable} \; \mt{t} \\
adam@1778	1754 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{t} \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{t}
adamc@544	1755 \end{array}$$
adamc@544	1756
adamc@1123	1757 Additionally, most function-free types may be injected safely, via the $\mt{serialized}$ type family.
adamc@1123	1758 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@1123	1759 \mt{con} \; \mt{serialized} :: \mt{Type} \to \mt{Type} \\
adamc@1123	1760 \mt{val} \; \mt{serialize} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{t} \to \mt{serialized} \; \mt{t} \\
adamc@1123	1761 \mt{val} \; \mt{deserialize} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{serialized} \; \mt{t} \to \mt{t} \\
adamc@1123	1762 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_serialized} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{sql\_injectable\_prim} \; (\mt{serialized} \; \mt{t})
adamc@1123	1763 \end{array}$$
adamc@1123	1764
adamc@544	1765 We have the SQL nullness test, which is necessary because of the strange SQL semantics of equality in the presence of null values.
adamc@544	1766 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1778	1767 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_is\_null} : \mt{tables} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{agg} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{exps} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \\
adam@1778	1768 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; (\mt{option} \; \mt{t}) \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{bool}
adamc@544	1769 \end{array}$$
adamc@544	1770
adam@1602	1771 As another way of dealing with null values, there is also a restricted form of the standard \cd{COALESCE} function.
adam@1602	1772 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1602	1773 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_coalesce} : \mt{tables} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{agg} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{exps} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \\
adam@1778	1774 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \\
adam@1778	1775 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; (\mt{option} \; \mt{t}) \\
adam@1778	1776 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{t} \\
adam@1778	1777 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{t}
adam@1602	1778 \end{array}$$
adam@1602	1779
adamc@559	1780 We have generic nullary, unary, and binary operators.
adamc@544	1781 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@544	1782 \mt{con} \; \mt{sql\_nfunc} :: \mt{Type} \to \mt{Type} \\
adamc@544	1783 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_current\_timestamp} : \mt{sql\_nfunc} \; \mt{time} \\
adam@1778	1784 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_nfunc} : \mt{tables} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{agg} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{exps} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \\
adam@1778	1785 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_nfunc} \; \mt{t} \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{t} \\\end{array}$$
adamc@544	1786
adamc@544	1787 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@544	1788 \mt{con} \; \mt{sql\_unary} :: \mt{Type} \to \mt{Type} \to \mt{Type} \\
adamc@544	1789 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_not} : \mt{sql\_unary} \; \mt{bool} \; \mt{bool} \\
adam@1778	1790 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_unary} : \mt{tables} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{agg} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{exps} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{arg} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{res} ::: \mt{Type} \\
adam@1778	1791 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_unary} \; \mt{arg} \; \mt{res} \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{arg} \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{res} \\
adamc@544	1792 \end{array}$$
adamc@544	1793
adamc@544	1794 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@544	1795 \mt{con} \; \mt{sql\_binary} :: \mt{Type} \to \mt{Type} \to \mt{Type} \to \mt{Type} \\
adamc@544	1796 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_and} : \mt{sql\_binary} \; \mt{bool} \; \mt{bool} \; \mt{bool} \\
adamc@544	1797 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_or} : \mt{sql\_binary} \; \mt{bool} \; \mt{bool} \; \mt{bool} \\
adam@1778	1798 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_binary} : \mt{tables} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{agg} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{exps} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{arg_1} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{arg_2} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{res} ::: \mt{Type} \\
adam@1778	1799 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_binary} \; \mt{arg_1} \; \mt{arg_2} \; \mt{res} \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{arg_1} \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{arg_2} \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{res}
adamc@544	1800 \end{array}$$
adamc@544	1801
adamc@544	1802 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@559	1803 \mt{class} \; \mt{sql\_arith} \\
adamc@559	1804 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_int\_arith} : \mt{sql\_arith} \; \mt{int} \\
adamc@559	1805 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_float\_arith} : \mt{sql\_arith} \; \mt{float} \\
adamc@559	1806 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_neg} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{sql\_arith} \; \mt{t} \to \mt{sql\_unary} \; \mt{t} \; \mt{t} \\
adamc@559	1807 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_plus} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{sql\_arith} \; \mt{t} \to \mt{sql\_binary} \; \mt{t} \; \mt{t} \; \mt{t} \\
adamc@559	1808 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_minus} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{sql\_arith} \; \mt{t} \to \mt{sql\_binary} \; \mt{t} \; \mt{t} \; \mt{t} \\
adamc@559	1809 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_times} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{sql\_arith} \; \mt{t} \to \mt{sql\_binary} \; \mt{t} \; \mt{t} \; \mt{t} \\
adamc@559	1810 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_div} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{sql\_arith} \; \mt{t} \to \mt{sql\_binary} \; \mt{t} \; \mt{t} \; \mt{t} \\
adamc@559	1811 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_mod} : \mt{sql\_binary} \; \mt{int} \; \mt{int} \; \mt{int}
adamc@559	1812 \end{array}$$
adamc@544	1813
adam@1797	1814 Finally, we have aggregate functions. The $\mt{COUNT(\ast)}$ syntax is handled specially, since it takes no real argument. The other aggregate functions are placed into a general type family, using constructor classes to restrict usage to properly typed arguments. The key aspect of the $\mt{sql\_aggregate}$ function's type is the shift of aggregate-function-only fields into unrestricted fields.
adamc@544	1815 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1778	1816 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_count} : \mt{tables} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{agg} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{exps} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{int}
adamc@544	1817 \end{array}$$
adamc@544	1818
adamc@544	1819 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@1188	1820 \mt{con} \; \mt{sql\_aggregate} :: \mt{Type} \to \mt{Type} \to \mt{Type} \\
adam@1778	1821 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_aggregate} : \mt{tables} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{agg} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{exps} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{dom} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{ran} ::: \mt{Type} \\
adam@1778	1822 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_aggregate} \; \mt{dom} \; \mt{ran} \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{dom} \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{ran}
adamc@1188	1823 \end{array}$$
adamc@1188	1824
adamc@1188	1825 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@1188	1826 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_count\_col} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{sql\_aggregate} \; (\mt{option} \; \mt{t}) \; \mt{int}
adamc@544	1827 \end{array}$$
adam@1400	1828
adam@1400	1829 Most aggregate functions are typed using a two-parameter constructor class $\mt{nullify}$ which maps $\mt{option}$ types to themselves and adds $\mt{option}$ to others. That is, this constructor class represents the process of making an SQL type ``nullable.''
adamc@544	1830
adamc@544	1831 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@544	1832 \mt{class} \; \mt{sql\_summable} \\
adamc@544	1833 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_summable\_int} : \mt{sql\_summable} \; \mt{int} \\
adamc@544	1834 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_summable\_float} : \mt{sql\_summable} \; \mt{float} \\
adam@1777	1835 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_avg} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{sql\_summable} \; \mt{t} \to \mt{sql\_aggregate} \; \mt{t} \; (\mt{option} \; \mt{float}) \\
adam@1400	1836 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_sum} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{nt} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{sql\_summable} \; \mt{t} \to \mt{nullify} \; \mt{t} \; \mt{nt} \to \mt{sql\_aggregate} \; \mt{t} \; \mt{nt}
adamc@544	1837 \end{array}$$
adamc@544	1838
adamc@544	1839 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@544	1840 \mt{class} \; \mt{sql\_maxable} \\
adamc@544	1841 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_maxable\_int} : \mt{sql\_maxable} \; \mt{int} \\
adamc@544	1842 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_maxable\_float} : \mt{sql\_maxable} \; \mt{float} \\
adamc@544	1843 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_maxable\_string} : \mt{sql\_maxable} \; \mt{string} \\
adamc@544	1844 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_maxable\_time} : \mt{sql\_maxable} \; \mt{time} \\
adam@1400	1845 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_max} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{nt} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{sql\_maxable} \; \mt{t} \to \mt{nullify} \; \mt{t} \; \mt{nt} \to \mt{sql\_aggregate} \; \mt{t} \; \mt{nt} \\
adam@1400	1846 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_min} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{nt} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{sql\_maxable} \; \mt{t} \to \mt{nullify} \; \mt{t} \; \mt{nt} \to \mt{sql\_aggregate} \; \mt{t} \; \mt{nt}
adamc@544	1847 \end{array}$$
adamc@544	1848
adam@1778	1849 Any SQL query that returns single columns may be turned into a subquery expression.
adam@1777	1850
adam@1777	1851 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1778	1852 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_subquery} : \mt{tables} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{agg} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{exps} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{nm} ::: \mt{Name} \to \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{nt} ::: \mt{Type} \\
adam@1778	1853 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{nullify} \; \mt{t} \; \mt{nt} \to \mt{sql\_query} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; [\mt{nm} = \mt{t}] \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{nt}
adamc@1193	1854 \end{array}$$
adamc@1193	1855
adam@1573	1856 There is also an \cd{IF..THEN..ELSE..} construct that is compiled into standard SQL \cd{CASE} expressions.
adam@1573	1857 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1778	1858 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_if\_then\_else} : \mt{tables} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{agg} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{exps} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \\
adam@1778	1859 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{bool} \\
adam@1778	1860 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{t} \\
adam@1778	1861 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{t} \\
adam@1778	1862 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{t}
adam@1573	1863 \end{array}$$
adam@1573	1864
adamc@1193	1865 \texttt{FROM} clauses are specified using a type family, whose arguments are the free table variables and the table variables bound by this clause.
adamc@1193	1866 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@1193	1867 \mt{con} \; \mt{sql\_from\_items} :: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{Type} \\
adamc@1193	1868 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_from\_table} : \mt{free} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \\
adamc@1193	1869 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{fs} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{fieldsOf} \; \mt{t} \; \mt{fs} \to \mt{name} :: \mt{Name} \to \mt{t} \to \mt{sql\_from\_items} \; \mt{free} \; [\mt{name} = \mt{fs}] \\
adamc@1193	1870 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_from\_query} : \mt{free} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{fs} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{name} :: \mt{Name} \to \mt{sql\_query} \; \mt{free} \; [] \; \mt{fs} \to \mt{sql\_from\_items} \; \mt{free} \; [\mt{name} = \mt{fs}] \\
adamc@1193	1871 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_from\_comma} : \mt{free} ::: \mt{tabs1} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{tabs2} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to [\mt{tabs1} \sim \mt{tabs2}] \\
adamc@1193	1872 \hspace{.1in} \Rightarrow \mt{sql\_from\_items} \; \mt{free} \; \mt{tabs1} \to \mt{sql\_from\_items} \; \mt{free} \; \mt{tabs2} \\
adamc@1193	1873 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_from\_items} \; \mt{free} \; (\mt{tabs1} \rc \mt{tabs2}) \\
adamc@1193	1874 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_inner\_join} : \mt{free} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{tabs1} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{tabs2} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \\
adamc@1193	1875 \hspace{.1in} \to [\mt{free} \sim \mt{tabs1}] \Rightarrow [\mt{free} \sim \mt{tabs2}] \Rightarrow [\mt{tabs1} \sim \mt{tabs2}] \\
adamc@1193	1876 \hspace{.1in} \Rightarrow \mt{sql\_from\_items} \; \mt{free} \; \mt{tabs1} \to \mt{sql\_from\_items} \; \mt{free} \; \mt{tabs2} \\
adam@1778	1877 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; (\mt{free} \rc \mt{tabs1} \rc \mt{tabs2}) \; [] \; [] \; \mt{bool} \\
adamc@1193	1878 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_from\_items} \; \mt{free} \; (\mt{tabs1} \rc \mt{tabs2})
adamc@786	1879 \end{array}$$
adamc@786	1880
adamc@786	1881 Besides these basic cases, outer joins are supported, which requires a type class for turning non-$\mt{option}$ columns into $\mt{option}$ columns.
adamc@786	1882 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@786	1883 \mt{class} \; \mt{nullify} :: \mt{Type} \to \mt{Type} \to \mt{Type} \\
adamc@786	1884 \mt{val} \; \mt{nullify\_option} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{nullify} \; (\mt{option} \; \mt{t}) \; (\mt{option} \; \mt{t}) \\
adamc@786	1885 \mt{val} \; \mt{nullify\_prim} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{sql\_injectable\_prim} \; \mt{t} \to \mt{nullify} \; \mt{t} \; (\mt{option} \; \mt{t})
adamc@786	1886 \end{array}$$
adamc@786	1887
adamc@786	1888 Left, right, and full outer joins can now be expressed using functions that accept records of $\mt{nullify}$ instances. Here, we give only the type for a left join as an example.
adamc@786	1889
adamc@786	1890 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@1193	1891 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_left\_join} : \mt{free} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{tabs1} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{tabs2} ::: \{\{(\mt{Type} \times \mt{Type})\}\} \\
adamc@1193	1892 \hspace{.1in} \to [\mt{free} \sim \mt{tabs1}] \Rightarrow [\mt{free} \sim \mt{tabs2}] \Rightarrow [\mt{tabs1} \sim \mt{tabs2}] \\
adamc@786	1893 \hspace{.1in} \Rightarrow \$(\mt{map} \; (\lambda \mt{r} \Rightarrow \$(\mt{map} \; (\lambda \mt{p} :: (\mt{Type} \times \mt{Type}) \Rightarrow \mt{nullify} \; \mt{p}.1 \; \mt{p}.2) \; \mt{r})) \; \mt{tabs2}) \\
adamc@1193	1894 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_from\_items} \; \mt{free} \; \mt{tabs1} \to \mt{sql\_from\_items} \; \mt{free} \; (\mt{map} \; (\mt{map} \; (\lambda \mt{p} :: (\mt{Type} \times \mt{Type}) \Rightarrow \mt{p}.1)) \; \mt{tabs2}) \\
adam@1778	1895 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; (\mt{free} \rc \mt{tabs1} \rc \mt{map} \; (\mt{map} \; (\lambda \mt{p} :: (\mt{Type} \times \mt{Type}) \Rightarrow \mt{p}.1)) \; \mt{tabs2}) \; [] \; [] \; \mt{bool} \\
adamc@1193	1896 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_from\_items} \; \mt{free} \; (\mt{tabs1} \rc \mt{map} \; (\mt{map} \; (\lambda \mt{p} :: (\mt{Type} \times \mt{Type}) \Rightarrow \mt{p}.2)) \; \mt{tabs2})
adamc@786	1897 \end{array}$$
adamc@786	1898
adamc@544	1899 We wrap up the definition of query syntax with the types used in representing $\mt{ORDER} \; \mt{BY}$, $\mt{LIMIT}$, and $\mt{OFFSET}$ clauses.
adamc@544	1900 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@544	1901 \mt{type} \; \mt{sql\_direction} \\
adamc@544	1902 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_asc} : \mt{sql\_direction} \\
adamc@544	1903 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_desc} : \mt{sql\_direction} \\
adamc@544	1904 \\
adamc@544	1905 \mt{con} \; \mt{sql\_order\_by} :: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{Type} \\
adamc@544	1906 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_order\_by\_Nil} : \mt{tables} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{exps} :: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{sql\_order\_by} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{exps} \\
adam@1778	1907 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_order\_by\_Cons} : \mt{tf} ::: (\{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{Type} \to \mt{Type}) \\
adam@1778	1908 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{tables} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{exps} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \\
adam@1778	1909 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_window} \; \mt{tf} \to \mt{tf} \; \mt{tables} \; [] \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{t} \to \mt{sql\_direction} \to \mt{sql\_order\_by} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{exps} \to \mt{sql\_order\_by} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{exps} \\
adam@1684	1910 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_order\_by\_random} : \mt{tables} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{exps} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{sql\_order\_by} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{exps} \\
adamc@544	1911 \\
adamc@544	1912 \mt{type} \; \mt{sql\_limit} \\
adamc@544	1913 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_no\_limit} : \mt{sql\_limit} \\
adamc@544	1914 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_limit} : \mt{int} \to \mt{sql\_limit} \\
adamc@544	1915 \\
adamc@544	1916 \mt{type} \; \mt{sql\_offset} \\
adamc@544	1917 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_no\_offset} : \mt{sql\_offset} \\
adamc@544	1918 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_offset} : \mt{int} \to \mt{sql\_offset}
adamc@544	1919 \end{array}$$
adamc@544	1920
adam@1778	1921 When using Postgres, \cd{SELECT} and \cd{ORDER BY} are allowed to contain top-level uses of \emph{window functions}. A separate type family \cd{sql\_expw} is provided for such cases, with some type class convenience for overloading between normal and window expressions.
adam@1778	1922 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1778	1923 \mt{con} \; \mt{sql\_expw} :: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{Type} \to \mt{Type} \\
adam@1778	1924 \\
adam@1778	1925 \mt{class} \; \mt{sql\_window} :: (\{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{Type} \to \mt{Type}) \to \mt{Type} \\
adam@1778	1926 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_window\_normal} : \mt{sql\_window} \; \mt{sql\_exp} \\
adam@1778	1927 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_window\_fancy} : \mt{sql\_window} \; \mt{sql\_expw} \\
adam@1778	1928 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_window} : \mt{tf} ::: (\{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{Type} \to \mt{Type}) \\
adam@1778	1929 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{tables} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{agg} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{exps} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \\
adam@1778	1930 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_window} \; \mt{tf} \\
adam@1778	1931 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{tf} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{t} \\
adam@1778	1932 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_expw} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{t} \\
adam@1778	1933 \\
adam@1778	1934 \mt{con} \; \mt{sql\_partition} :: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{Type} \\
adam@1778	1935 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_no\_partition} : \mt{tables} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{agg} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{exps} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \\
adam@1778	1936 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_partition} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \\
adam@1778	1937 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_partition} : \mt{tables} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{agg} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{exps} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \\
adam@1778	1938 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{t} \\
adam@1778	1939 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_partition} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \\
adam@1778	1940 \\
adam@1778	1941 \mt{con} \; \mt{sql\_window\_function} :: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{Type} \to \mt{Type} \\
adam@1778	1942 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_window\_function} : \mt{tables} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{agg} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{exps} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \\
adam@1778	1943 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \\
adam@1778	1944 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_window\_function} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{t} \\
adam@1778	1945 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_partition} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \\
adam@1778	1946 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_order\_by} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{exps} \\
adam@1778	1947 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_expw} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{t} \\
adam@1778	1948 \\
adam@1778	1949 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_window\_aggregate} : \mt{tables} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{agg} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{exps} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \\
adam@1778	1950 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{nt} ::: \mt{Type} \\
adam@1778	1951 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_aggregate} \; \mt{t} \; \mt{nt} \\
adam@1778	1952 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{t} \\
adam@1778	1953 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_window\_function} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{nt} \\
adam@1778	1954 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_window\_count} : \mt{tables} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{agg} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{exps} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \\
adam@1778	1955 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_window\_function} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{int} \\
adam@1778	1956 \mt{val} \; \mt{sql\_rank} : \mt{tables} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{agg} ::: \{\{\mt{Type}\}\} \to \mt{exps} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \\
adam@1778	1957 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_window\_function} \; \mt{tables} \; \mt{agg} \; \mt{exps} \; \mt{int}
adam@1778	1958 \end{array}$$
adam@1778	1959
adamc@545	1960
adamc@545	1961 \subsubsection{DML}
adamc@545	1962
adamc@545	1963 The Ur/Web library also includes an embedding of a fragment of SQL's DML, the Data Manipulation Language, for modifying database tables. Any piece of DML may be executed in a transaction.
adamc@545	1964
adamc@545	1965 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@545	1966 \mt{type} \; \mt{dml} \\
adamc@545	1967 \mt{val} \; \mt{dml} : \mt{dml} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit}
adamc@545	1968 \end{array}$$
adamc@545	1969
adam@1297	1970 The function $\mt{Basis.dml}$ will trigger a fatal application error if the command fails, for instance, because a data integrity constraint is violated. An alternate function returns an error message as a string instead.
adam@1297	1971
adam@1297	1972 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1297	1973 \mt{val} \; \mt{tryDml} : \mt{dml} \to \mt{transaction} \; (\mt{option} \; \mt{string})
adam@1297	1974 \end{array}$$
adam@1297	1975
adam@1797	1976 Properly typed records may be used to form $\mt{INSERT}$ commands.
adamc@545	1977 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@545	1978 \mt{val} \; \mt{insert} : \mt{fields} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{sql\_table} \; \mt{fields} \\
adam@1778	1979 \hspace{.1in} \to \$(\mt{map} \; (\mt{sql\_exp} \; [] \; [] \; []) \; \mt{fields}) \to \mt{dml}
adamc@545	1980 \end{array}$$
adamc@545	1981
adam@1578	1982 An $\mt{UPDATE}$ command is formed from a choice of which table fields to leave alone and which to change, along with an expression to use to compute the new value of each changed field and a $\mt{WHERE}$ clause. Note that, in the table environment applied to expressions, the table being updated is hardcoded at the name $\mt{T}$. The parsing extension for $\mt{UPDATE}$ will elaborate all table-free field references to use table variable $\mt{T}$.
adamc@545	1983 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1380	1984 \mt{val} \; \mt{update} : \mt{unchanged} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{changed} :: \{\mt{Type}\} \to [\mt{changed} \sim \mt{unchanged}] \\
adam@1778	1985 \hspace{.1in} \Rightarrow \$(\mt{map} \; (\mt{sql\_exp} \; [\mt{T} = \mt{changed} \rc \mt{unchanged}] \; [] \; []) \; \mt{changed}) \\
adam@1778	1986 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{sql\_table} \; (\mt{changed} \rc \mt{unchanged}) \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; [\mt{T} = \mt{changed} \rc \mt{unchanged}] \; [] \; [] \; \mt{bool} \to \mt{dml}
adamc@545	1987 \end{array}$$
adamc@545	1988
adam@1578	1989 A $\mt{DELETE}$ command is formed from a table and a $\mt{WHERE}$ clause. The above use of $\mt{T}$ is repeated.
adamc@545	1990 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1778	1991 \mt{val} \; \mt{delete} : \mt{fields} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{sql\_table} \; \mt{fields} \to \mt{sql\_exp} \; [\mt{T} = \mt{fields}] \; [] \; [] \; \mt{bool} \to \mt{dml}
adamc@545	1992 \end{array}$$
adamc@545	1993
adamc@546	1994 \subsubsection{Sequences}
adamc@546	1995
adamc@546	1996 SQL sequences are counters with concurrency control, often used to assign unique IDs. Ur/Web supports them via a simple interface. The only way to create a sequence is with the $\mt{sequence}$ declaration form.
adamc@546	1997
adamc@546	1998 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@546	1999 \mt{type} \; \mt{sql\_sequence} \\
adamc@1085	2000 \mt{val} \; \mt{nextval} : \mt{sql\_sequence} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{int} \\
adamc@1085	2001 \mt{val} \; \mt{setval} : \mt{sql\_sequence} \to \mt{int} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit}
adamc@546	2002 \end{array}$$
adamc@546	2003
adamc@546	2004
adam@1648	2005 \subsection{\label{xml}XML}
adamc@547	2006
adam@1333	2007 Ur/Web's library contains an encoding of XML syntax and semantic constraints. We make no effort to follow the standards governing XML schemas. Rather, XML fragments are viewed more as values of ML datatypes, and we only track which tags are allowed inside which other tags. The Ur/Web standard library encodes a very loose version of XHTML, where it is very easy to produce documents which are invalid XHTML, but which still display properly in all major browsers. The main purposes of the invariants that are enforced are first, to provide some documentation about the places where it would make sense to insert XML fragments; and second, to rule out code injection attacks and other abstraction violations related to HTML syntax.
adamc@547	2008
adam@1642	2009 The basic XML type family has arguments respectively indicating the \emph{context} of a fragment, the fields that the fragment expects to be bound on entry (and their types), and the fields that the fragment will bind (and their types). Contexts are a record-based ``poor man's subtyping'' encoding, with each possible set of valid tags corresponding to a different context record. For instance, the context for the \texttt{<td>} tag is $[\mt{Dyn}, \mt{MakeForm}, \mt{Tr}]$, to indicate nesting inside a \texttt{<tr>} tag with the ability to nest \texttt{<form>} and \texttt{<dyn>} tags (see below). Contexts are maintained in a somewhat ad-hoc way; the only definitive reference for their meanings is the types of the tag values in \texttt{basis.urs}. The arguments dealing with field binding are only relevant to HTML forms.
adamc@547	2010 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@547	2011 \mt{con} \; \mt{xml} :: \{\mt{Unit}\} \to \{\mt{Type}\} \to \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{Type}
adamc@547	2012 \end{array}$$
adamc@547	2013
adamc@547	2014 We also have a type family of XML tags, indexed respectively by the record of optional attributes accepted by the tag, the context in which the tag may be placed, the context required of children of the tag, which form fields the tag uses, and which fields the tag defines.
adamc@547	2015 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@547	2016 \mt{con} \; \mt{tag} :: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \{\mt{Unit}\} \to \{\mt{Unit}\} \to \{\mt{Type}\} \to \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{Type}
adamc@547	2017 \end{array}$$
adamc@547	2018
adamc@547	2019 Literal text may be injected into XML as ``CDATA.''
adamc@547	2020 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@547	2021 \mt{val} \; \mt{cdata} : \mt{ctx} ::: \{\mt{Unit}\} \to \mt{use} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{string} \to \mt{xml} \; \mt{ctx} \; \mt{use} \; []
adamc@547	2022 \end{array}$$
adamc@547	2023
adam@1358	2024 There is also a function to insert the literal value of a character. Since Ur/Web uses the UTF-8 text encoding, the $\mt{cdata}$ function is only sufficient to encode characters with ASCII codes below 128. Higher codes have alternate meanings in UTF-8 than in usual ASCII, so this alternate function should be used with them.
adam@1358	2025 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1358	2026 \mt{val} \; \mt{cdataChar} : \mt{ctx} ::: \{\mt{Unit}\} \to \mt{use} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{char} \to \mt{xml} \; \mt{ctx} \; \mt{use} \; []
adam@1358	2027 \end{array}$$
adam@1358	2028
adamc@547	2029 There is a function for producing an XML tree with a particular tag at its root.
adamc@547	2030 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@547	2031 \mt{val} \; \mt{tag} : \mt{attrsGiven} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{attrsAbsent} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{ctxOuter} ::: \{\mt{Unit}\} \to \mt{ctxInner} ::: \{\mt{Unit}\} \\
adamc@547	2032 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{useOuter} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{useInner} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{bindOuter} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{bindInner} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \\
adam@1380	2033 \hspace{.1in} \to [\mt{attrsGiven} \sim \mt{attrsAbsent}] \Rightarrow [\mt{useOuter} \sim \mt{useInner}] \Rightarrow [\mt{bindOuter} \sim \mt{bindInner}] \\
adam@1749	2034 \hspace{.1in} \Rightarrow \mt{css\_class} \\
adam@1643	2035 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{option} \; (\mt{signal} \; \mt{css\_class}) \\
adam@1750	2036 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{css\_style} \\
adam@1751	2037 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{option} \; (\mt{signal} \; \mt{css\_style}) \\
adamc@787	2038 \hspace{.1in} \to \$\mt{attrsGiven} \\
adamc@547	2039 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{tag} \; (\mt{attrsGiven} \rc \mt{attrsAbsent}) \; \mt{ctxOuter} \; \mt{ctxInner} \; \mt{useOuter} \; \mt{bindOuter} \\
adamc@547	2040 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{xml} \; \mt{ctxInner} \; \mt{useInner} \; \mt{bindInner} \to \mt{xml} \; \mt{ctxOuter} \; (\mt{useOuter} \rc \mt{useInner}) \; (\mt{bindOuter} \rc \mt{bindInner})
adamc@547	2041 \end{array}$$
adam@1750	2042 Note that any tag may be assigned a CSS class, or left without a class by passing $\mt{Basis.null}$ as the first value-level argument. This is the sole way of making use of the values produced by $\mt{style}$ declarations. The function $\mt{Basis.classes}$ can be used to specify a list of CSS classes for a single tag. Stylesheets to assign properties to the classes can be linked via URL's with \texttt{link} tags. Ur/Web makes it easy to calculate upper bounds on usage of CSS classes through program analysis, with the \cd{-css} command-line flag.
adamc@547	2043
adam@1643	2044 Also note that two different arguments are available for setting CSS classes: the first, associated with the \texttt{class} pseudo-attribute syntactic sugar, fixes the class of a tag for the duration of the tag's life; while the second, associated with the \texttt{dynClass} pseudo-attribute, allows the class to vary over the tag's life. See Section \ref{signals} for an introduction to the $\mt{signal}$ type family.
adam@1643	2045
adam@1751	2046 The third and fourth value-level arguments makes it possible to generate HTML \cd{style} attributes, either with fixed content (\cd{style} attribute) or dynamic content (\cd{dynStyle} pseudo-attribute).
adam@1750	2047
adamc@547	2048 Two XML fragments may be concatenated.
adamc@547	2049 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@547	2050 \mt{val} \; \mt{join} : \mt{ctx} ::: \{\mt{Unit}\} \to \mt{use_1} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{bind_1} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{bind_2} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \\
adam@1380	2051 \hspace{.1in} \to [\mt{use_1} \sim \mt{bind_1}] \Rightarrow [\mt{bind_1} \sim \mt{bind_2}] \\
adamc@547	2052 \hspace{.1in} \Rightarrow \mt{xml} \; \mt{ctx} \; \mt{use_1} \; \mt{bind_1} \to \mt{xml} \; \mt{ctx} \; (\mt{use_1} \rc \mt{bind_1}) \; \mt{bind_2} \to \mt{xml} \; \mt{ctx} \; \mt{use_1} \; (\mt{bind_1} \rc \mt{bind_2})
adamc@547	2053 \end{array}$$
adamc@547	2054
adamc@547	2055 Finally, any XML fragment may be updated to ``claim'' to use more form fields than it does.
adamc@547	2056 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1380	2057 \mt{val} \; \mt{useMore} : \mt{ctx} ::: \{\mt{Unit}\} \to \mt{use_1} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{use_2} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{bind} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to [\mt{use_1} \sim \mt{use_2}] \\
adamc@547	2058 \hspace{.1in} \Rightarrow \mt{xml} \; \mt{ctx} \; \mt{use_1} \; \mt{bind} \to \mt{xml} \; \mt{ctx} \; (\mt{use_1} \rc \mt{use_2}) \; \mt{bind}
adamc@547	2059 \end{array}$$
adamc@547	2060
adam@2008	2061 We will not list here the different HTML tags and related functions from the standard library. They should be easy enough to understand from the code in \texttt{basis.urs}. The set of tags in the library is not yet claimed to be complete for HTML standards. Also note that there is currently no way for the programmer to add his own tags, without using the foreign function interface (Section \ref{ffi}).
adam@2008	2062
adam@2008	2063 Some tags support HTML5 \texttt{data-*} attributes, which in Ur/Web are encoded as a single attribute $\mt{Data}$ with type $\mt{data\_attrs}$ encoding one or more attributes of this kind. See \texttt{basis.urs} for details. The usual HTML5 syntax for these attributes is supported by the Ur/Web parser as syntactic sugar.
adamc@547	2064
adamc@547	2065 One last useful function is for aborting any page generation, returning some XML as an error message. This function takes the place of some uses of a general exception mechanism.
adamc@547	2066 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1641	2067 \mt{val} \; \mt{error} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{xbody} \to \mt{t}
adamc@547	2068 \end{array}$$
adamc@547	2069
adamc@549	2070
adamc@701	2071 \subsection{Client-Side Programming}
adamc@659	2072
adamc@701	2073 Ur/Web supports running code on web browsers, via automatic compilation to JavaScript.
adamc@701	2074
adamc@701	2075 \subsubsection{The Basics}
adamc@701	2076
adam@1400	2077 All of the functions in this subsection are client-side only.
adam@1400	2078
adam@1297	2079 Clients can open alert and confirm dialog boxes, in the usual annoying JavaScript way.
adamc@701	2080 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1297	2081 \mt{val} \; \mt{alert} : \mt{string} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit} \\
adam@1297	2082 \mt{val} \; \mt{confirm} : \mt{string} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{bool}
adamc@701	2083 \end{array}$$
adamc@701	2084
adamc@701	2085 Any transaction may be run in a new thread with the $\mt{spawn}$ function.
adamc@701	2086 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@701	2087 \mt{val} \; \mt{spawn} : \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit}
adamc@701	2088 \end{array}$$
adamc@701	2089
adamc@701	2090 The current thread can be paused for at least a specified number of milliseconds.
adamc@701	2091 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@701	2092 \mt{val} \; \mt{sleep} : \mt{int} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit}
adamc@701	2093 \end{array}$$
adamc@701	2094
adam@1770	2095 A few functions are available to registers callbacks for particular error events. Respectively, they are triggered on calls to $\mt{error}$, uncaught JavaScript exceptions, failure of remote procedure calls, the severance of the connection serving asynchronous messages, or the occurrence of some other error with that connection. If no handlers are registered for a kind of error, then a JavaScript \cd{alert()} is used to announce its occurrence. When one of these functions is called multiple times within a single page, all registered handlers are run when appropriate events occur, with handlers run in the reverse of their registration order.
adamc@787	2096 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@787	2097 \mt{val} \; \mt{onError} : (\mt{xbody} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit}) \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit} \\
adamc@787	2098 \mt{val} \; \mt{onFail} : (\mt{string} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit}) \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit} \\
adamc@787	2099 \mt{val} \; \mt{onConnectFail} : \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit} \\
adamc@787	2100 \mt{val} \; \mt{onDisconnect} : \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit} \\
adamc@787	2101 \mt{val} \; \mt{onServerError} : (\mt{string} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit}) \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit}
adamc@787	2102 \end{array}$$
adamc@787	2103
adam@1555	2104 There are also functions to register standard document-level event handlers.
adam@1555	2105
adam@1555	2106 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1783	2107 \mt{val} \; \mt{onClick} : (\mt{mouseEvent} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit}) \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit} \\
adam@1783	2108 \mt{val} \; \mt{onDblclick} : (\mt{mouseEvent} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit}) \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit} \\
adam@1783	2109 \mt{val} \; \mt{onKeydown} : (\mt{keyEvent} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit}) \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit} \\
adam@1783	2110 \mt{val} \; \mt{onKeypress} : (\mt{keyEvent} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit}) \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit} \\
adam@1783	2111 \mt{val} \; \mt{onKeyup} : (\mt{keyEvent} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit}) \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit} \\
adam@1783	2112 \mt{val} \; \mt{onMousedown} : (\mt{mouseEvent} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit}) \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit} \\
adam@1783	2113 \mt{val} \; \mt{onMouseup} : (\mt{mouseEvent} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit}) \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit}
adam@1555	2114 \end{array}$$
adam@1555	2115
adam@1559	2116 Versions of standard JavaScript functions are provided that event handlers may call to mask default handling or prevent bubbling of events up to parent DOM nodes, respectively.
adam@1559	2117
adam@1559	2118 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1559	2119 \mt{val} \; \mt{preventDefault} : \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit} \\
adam@1559	2120 \mt{val} \; \mt{stopPropagation} : \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit}
adam@1559	2121 \end{array}$$
adam@1559	2122
adam@1926	2123 Finally, here is an HTML tag to leave a marker in the \cd{<head>} of a document asking for some side-effecting code to be run. This pattern is \emph{much} less common in Ur/Web applications than in normal HTML/JavaScript applications; see Section \ref{signals} for the more idiomatic, functional way of manipulating the visible page.
adam@1926	2124
adam@1926	2125 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1926	2126 \mt{val} \; \mt{script} : \mt{unit} \to \mt{tag} \; [\mt{Code} = \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit}] \; \mt{head} \; [] \; [] \; []
adam@1926	2127 \end{array}$$
adam@1926	2128
adam@1926	2129 Note that the Ur/Web version of \cd{<script>} is used like \cd{<script code=\{...\}/>}, rather than \cd{<script>...</script>}.
adam@1926	2130
adam@1556	2131 \subsubsection{Node IDs}
adam@1556	2132
adam@1556	2133 There is an abstract type of node IDs that may be assigned to \cd{id} attributes of most HTML tags.
adam@1556	2134
adam@1556	2135 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1556	2136 \mt{type} \; \mt{id} \\
adam@1556	2137 \mt{val} \; \mt{fresh} : \mt{transaction} \; \mt{id}
adam@1556	2138 \end{array}$$
adam@1556	2139
adam@1785	2140 The \cd{fresh} function is allowed on both server and client, but there is no other way to create IDs, which includes lack of a way to force an ID to match a particular string. The main semantic importance of IDs within Ur/Web is in uses of the HTML \cd{<label>} tag. IDs play a much more central role in mainstream JavaScript programming, but Ur/Web uses a very different model to enable changes to particular nodes of a page tree, as the next manual subsection explains. IDs may still be useful in interfacing with JavaScript code (for instance, through Ur/Web's FFI).
adam@1785	2141
adam@1785	2142 One further use of IDs is as handles for requesting that \emph{focus} be given to specific tags.
adam@1785	2143
adam@1785	2144 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1785	2145 \mt{val} \; \mt{giveFocus} : \mt{id} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit}
adam@1785	2146 \end{array}$$
adam@1556	2147
adam@1643	2148 \subsubsection{\label{signals}Functional-Reactive Page Generation}
adamc@701	2149
adamc@701	2150 Most approaches to ``AJAX''-style coding involve imperative manipulation of the DOM tree representing an HTML document's structure. Ur/Web follows the \emph{functional-reactive} approach instead. Programs may allocate mutable \emph{sources} of arbitrary types, and an HTML page is effectively a pure function over the latest values of the sources. The page is not mutated directly, but rather it changes automatically as the sources are mutated.
adamc@659	2151
adam@1403	2152 More operationally, you can think of a source as a mutable cell with facilities for subscription to change notifications. That level of detail is hidden behind a monadic facility to be described below. First, there are three primitive operations for working with sources just as if they were ML \cd{ref} cells, corresponding to ML's \cd{ref}, \cd{:=}, and \cd{!} operations.
adam@1403	2153
adamc@659	2154 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@659	2155 \mt{con} \; \mt{source} :: \mt{Type} \to \mt{Type} \\
adamc@659	2156 \mt{val} \; \mt{source} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{t} \to \mt{transaction} \; (\mt{source} \; \mt{t}) \\
adamc@659	2157 \mt{val} \; \mt{set} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{source} \; \mt{t} \to \mt{t} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit} \\
adamc@659	2158 \mt{val} \; \mt{get} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{source} \; \mt{t} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{t}
adamc@659	2159 \end{array}$$
adamc@659	2160
adam@1400	2161 Only source creation and setting are supported server-side, as a convenience to help in setting up a page, where you may wish to allocate many sources that will be referenced through the page. All server-side storage of values inside sources uses string serializations of values, while client-side storage uses normal JavaScript values.
adam@1400	2162
adam@1608	2163 Pure functions over arbitrary numbers of sources are represented in a monad of \emph{signals}, which may only be used in client-side code. This is presented to the programmer in the form of a monad $\mt{signal}$, each of whose values represents (conceptually) some pure function over all sources that may be allocated in the course of program execution. A monad operation $\mt{signal}$ denotes the identity function over a particular source. By using $\mt{signal}$ on a source, you implicitly subscribe to change notifications for that source. That is, your signal will automatically be recomputed as that source changes. The usual monad operators make it possible to build up complex signals that depend on multiple sources; automatic updating upon source-value changes still happens automatically. There is also an operator for computing a signal's current value within a transaction.
adamc@659	2164
adamc@659	2165 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@659	2166 \mt{con} \; \mt{signal} :: \mt{Type} \to \mt{Type} \\
adamc@659	2167 \mt{val} \; \mt{signal\_monad} : \mt{monad} \; \mt{signal} \\
adam@1608	2168 \mt{val} \; \mt{signal} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{source} \; \mt{t} \to \mt{signal} \; \mt{t} \\
adam@1608	2169 \mt{val} \; \mt{current} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{signal} \; \mt{t} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{t}
adamc@659	2170 \end{array}$$
adamc@659	2171
adamc@659	2172 A reactive portion of an HTML page is injected with a $\mt{dyn}$ tag, which has a signal-valued attribute $\mt{Signal}$.
adamc@659	2173
adamc@659	2174 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1641	2175 \mt{val} \; \mt{dyn} : \mt{ctx} ::: \{\mt{Unit}\} \to \mt{use} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to \mt{bind} ::: \{\mt{Type}\} \to [\mt{ctx} \sim [\mt{Dyn}]] \Rightarrow \mt{unit} \\
adam@1641	2176 \hspace{.1in} \to \mt{tag} \; [\mt{Signal} = \mt{signal} \; (\mt{xml} \; ([\mt{Dyn}] \rc \mt{ctx}) \; \mt{use} \; \mt{bind})] \; ([\mt{Dyn}] \rc \mt{ctx}) \; [] \; \mt{use} \; \mt{bind}
adamc@659	2177 \end{array}$$
adamc@659	2178
adam@1648	2179 The semantics of \cd{<dyn>} tags is somewhat subtle. When the signal associated with such a tag changes value, the associated subtree of the HTML page is recreated. Some properties of the subtree, such as attributes and client-side widget values, are specified explicitly in the signal value, so these may be counted on to remain the same after recreation. Other properties, like focus and cursor position within textboxes, are \emph{not} specified by signal values, and these properties will be \emph{reset} upon subtree regeneration. Furthermore, user interaction with widgets may not work properly during regeneration. For instance, clicking a button while it is being regenerated may not trigger its \cd{onclick} event code.
adam@1648	2180
adam@1648	2181 Currently, the only way to avoid undesired resets is to avoid regeneration of containing subtrees. There are two main strategies for achieving that goal. First, when changes to a subtree can be confined to CSS classes of tags, the \texttt{dynClass} pseudo-attribute may be used instead (see Section \ref{xml}), as it does not regenerate subtrees. Second, a single \cd{<dyn>} tag may be broken into multiple tags, in a way that makes finer-grained dependency structure explicit. This latter strategy can avoid ``spurious'' regenerations that are not actually required to achieve the intended semantics.
adam@1648	2182
adam@1786	2183 Transactions can be run on the client by including them in attributes like the $\mt{Onclick}$ attribute of $\mt{button}$, and GUI widgets like $\mt{ctextbox}$ have $\mt{Source}$ attributes that can be used to connect them to sources, so that their values can be read by code running because of, e.g., an $\mt{Onclick}$ event. It is also possible to create an ``active'' HTML fragment that runs a $\mt{transaction}$ to determine its content, possibly allocating some sources in the process:
adam@1786	2184
adam@1786	2185 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1786	2186 \mt{val} \; \mt{active} : \mt{unit} \to \mt{tag} \; [\mt{Code} = \mt{transaction} \; \mt{xbody}] \; \mt{body} \; [] \; [] \; []
adam@1786	2187 \end{array}$$
adamc@701	2188
adamc@914	2189 \subsubsection{Remote Procedure Calls}
adamc@914	2190
adamc@914	2191 Any function call may be made a client-to-server ``remote procedure call'' if the function being called needs no features that are only available to client code. To make a function call an RPC, pass that function call as the argument to $\mt{Basis.rpc}$:
adamc@914	2192
adamc@914	2193 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@914	2194 \mt{val} \; \mt{rpc} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{t} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{t}
adamc@914	2195 \end{array}$$
adamc@914	2196
adam@1848	2197 There is an alternate form that uses $\mt{None}$ to indicate that an error occurred during RPC processing, rather than raising an exception to abort this branch of control flow.
adam@1848	2198
adam@1848	2199 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1848	2200 \mt{val} \; \mt{tryRpc} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{t} \to \mt{transaction} \; (\mt{option} \; \mt{t})
adam@1848	2201 \end{array}$$
adam@1848	2202
adamc@701	2203 \subsubsection{Asynchronous Message-Passing}
adamc@701	2204
adamc@701	2205 To support asynchronous, ``server push'' delivery of messages to clients, any client that might need to receive an asynchronous message is assigned a unique ID. These IDs may be retrieved both on the client and on the server, during execution of code related to a client.
adamc@701	2206
adamc@701	2207 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@701	2208 \mt{type} \; \mt{client} \\
adamc@701	2209 \mt{val} \; \mt{self} : \mt{transaction} \; \mt{client}
adamc@701	2210 \end{array}$$
adamc@701	2211
adam@1940	2212 \emph{Channels} are the means of message-passing. Each channel is created in the context of a client and belongs to that client; no other client may receive the channel's messages. Note that here \emph{client} has a technical Ur/Web meaning so that it describes only \emph{single page views}, so a user following a traditional link within an application will remove the ability for \emph{any} code to receive messages on the channels associated with the previous client. Each channel type includes the type of values that may be sent over the channel. Sending and receiving are asynchronous, in the sense that a client need not be ready to receive a message right away. Rather, sent messages may queue up, waiting to be processed.
adamc@701	2213
adamc@701	2214 $$\begin{array}{l}
adamc@701	2215 \mt{con} \; \mt{channel} :: \mt{Type} \to \mt{Type} \\
adamc@701	2216 \mt{val} \; \mt{channel} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{transaction} \; (\mt{channel} \; \mt{t}) \\
adamc@701	2217 \mt{val} \; \mt{send} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{channel} \; \mt{t} \to \mt{t} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit} \\
adamc@701	2218 \mt{val} \; \mt{recv} : \mt{t} ::: \mt{Type} \to \mt{channel} \; \mt{t} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{t}
adamc@701	2219 \end{array}$$
adamc@701	2220
adamc@701	2221 The $\mt{channel}$ and $\mt{send}$ operations may only be executed on the server, and $\mt{recv}$ may only be executed on a client. Neither clients nor channels may be passed as arguments from clients to server-side functions, so persistent channels can only be maintained by storing them in the database and looking them up using the current client ID or some application-specific value as a key.
adamc@701	2222
adamc@701	2223 Clients and channels live only as long as the web browser page views that they are associated with. When a user surfs away, his client and its channels will be garbage-collected, after that user is not heard from for the timeout period. Garbage collection deletes any database row that contains a client or channel directly. Any reference to one of these types inside an $\mt{option}$ is set to $\mt{None}$ instead. Both kinds of handling have the flavor of weak pointers, and that is a useful way to think about clients and channels in the database.
adamc@701	2224
adam@1551	2225 \emph{Note}: Currently, there are known concurrency issues with multi-threaded applications that employ message-passing on top of database engines that don't support true serializable transactions. Postgres 9.1 is the only supported engine that does this properly.
adam@1551	2226
adamc@659	2227
adamc@549	2228 \section{Ur/Web Syntax Extensions}
adamc@549	2229
adamc@549	2230 Ur/Web features some syntactic shorthands for building values using the functions from the last section. This section sketches the grammar of those extensions. We write spans of syntax inside brackets to indicate that they are optional.
adamc@549	2231
adamc@549	2232 \subsection{SQL}
adamc@549	2233
adamc@786	2234 \subsubsection{\label{tables}Table Declarations}
adamc@786	2235
adamc@788	2236 $\mt{table}$ declarations may include constraints, via these grammar rules.
adamc@788	2237 $$\begin{array}{rrcll}
adam@1594	2238 \textrm{Declarations} & d &::=& \mt{table} \; x : c \; [pk[,]] \; cts \mid \mt{view} \; x = V \\
adamc@788	2239 \textrm{Primary key constraints} & pk &::=& \mt{PRIMARY} \; \mt{KEY} \; K \\
adam@1722	2240 \textrm{Keys} & K &::=& f \mid (f, (f,)^+) \mid \{\{e\}\} \\
adamc@788	2241 \textrm{Constraint sets} & cts &::=& \mt{CONSTRAINT} f \; ct \mid cts, cts \mid \{\{e\}\} \\
adamc@788	2242 \textrm{Constraints} & ct &::=& \mt{UNIQUE} \; K \mid \mt{CHECK} \; E \\
adamc@788	2243 &&& \mid \mt{FOREIGN} \; \mt{KEY} \; K \; \mt{REFERENCES} \; F \; (K) \; [\mt{ON} \; \mt{DELETE} \; pr] \; [\mt{ON} \; \mt{UPDATE} \; pr] \\
adamc@788	2244 \textrm{Foreign tables} & F &::=& x \mid \{\{e\}\} \\
adam@1594	2245 \textrm{Propagation modes} & pr &::=& \mt{NO} \; \mt{ACTION} \mid \mt{RESTRICT} \mid \mt{CASCADE} \mid \mt{SET} \; \mt{NULL} \\
adam@1594	2246 \textrm{View expressions} & V &::=& Q \mid \{e\}
adamc@788	2247 \end{array}$$
adamc@788	2248
adamc@788	2249 A signature item $\mt{table} \; \mt{x} : \mt{c}$ is actually elaborated into two signature items: $\mt{con} \; \mt{x\_hidden\_constraints} :: \{\{\mt{Unit}\}\}$ and $\mt{val} \; \mt{x} : \mt{sql\_table} \; \mt{c} \; \mt{x\_hidden\_constraints}$. This is appropriate for common cases where client code doesn't care which keys a table has. It's also possible to include constraints after a $\mt{table}$ signature item, with the same syntax as for $\mt{table}$ declarations. This may look like dependent typing, but it's just a convenience. The constraints are type-checked to determine a constructor $u$ to include in $\mt{val} \; \mt{x} : \mt{sql\_table} \; \mt{c} \; (u \rc \mt{x\_hidden\_constraints})$, and then the expressions are thrown away. Nonetheless, it can be useful for documentation purposes to include table constraint details in signatures. Note that the automatic generation of $\mt{x\_hidden\_constraints}$ leads to a kind of free subtyping with respect to which constraints are defined.
adamc@788	2250
adamc@788	2251
adamc@549	2252 \subsubsection{Queries}
adamc@549	2253
adamc@550	2254 Queries $Q$ are added to the rules for expressions $e$.
adamc@550	2255
adamc@549	2256 $$\begin{array}{rrcll}
adam@1684	2257 \textrm{Queries} & Q &::=& (q \; [\mt{ORDER} \; \mt{BY} \; O] \; [\mt{LIMIT} \; N] \; [\mt{OFFSET} \; N]) \\
adamc@1085	2258 \textrm{Pre-queries} & q &::=& \mt{SELECT} \; [\mt{DISTINCT}] \; P \; \mt{FROM} \; F,^+ \; [\mt{WHERE} \; E] \; [\mt{GROUP} \; \mt{BY} \; p,^+] \; [\mt{HAVING} \; E] \\
adamc@1085	2259 &&& \mid q \; R \; q \mid \{\{\{e\}\}\} \\
adam@1684	2260 \textrm{Relational operators} & R &::=& \mt{UNION} \mid \mt{INTERSECT} \mid \mt{EXCEPT} \\
adam@1778	2261 \textrm{$\mt{ORDER \; BY}$ items} & O &::=& \mt{RANDOM} [()] \mid \hat{E} \; [o] \mid \hat{E} \; [o], O
adamc@549	2262 \end{array}$$
adamc@549	2263
adamc@549	2264 $$\begin{array}{rrcll}
adamc@549	2265 \textrm{Projections} & P &::=& \ast & \textrm{all columns} \\
adamc@549	2266 &&& p,^+ & \textrm{particular columns} \\
adamc@549	2267 \textrm{Pre-projections} & p &::=& t.f & \textrm{one column from a table} \\
adamc@558	2268 &&& t.\{\{c\}\} & \textrm{a record of columns from a table (of kind $\{\mt{Type}\}$)} \\
adam@1627	2269 &&& t.* & \textrm{all columns from a table} \\
adam@1778	2270 &&& \hat{E} \; [\mt{AS} \; f] & \textrm{expression column} \\
adamc@549	2271 \textrm{Table names} & t &::=& x & \textrm{constant table name (automatically capitalized)} \\
adamc@549	2272 &&& X & \textrm{constant table name} \\
adamc@549	2273 &&& \{\{c\}\} & \textrm{computed table name (of kind $\mt{Name}$)} \\
adamc@549	2274 \textrm{Column names} & f &::=& X & \textrm{constant column name} \\
adamc@549	2275 &&& \{c\} & \textrm{computed column name (of kind $\mt{Name}$)} \\
adamc@549	2276 \textrm{Tables} & T &::=& x & \textrm{table variable, named locally by its own capitalization} \\
adam@1756	2277 &&& x \; \mt{AS} \; X & \textrm{table variable, with local name} \\
adam@1756	2278 &&& x \; \mt{AS} \; \{c\} & \textrm{table variable, with computed local name} \\
adamc@549	2279 &&& \{\{e\}\} \; \mt{AS} \; t & \textrm{computed table expression, with local name} \\
adam@1756	2280 &&& \{\{e\}\} \; \mt{AS} \; \{c\} & \textrm{computed table expression, with computed local name} \\
adamc@1085	2281 \textrm{$\mt{FROM}$ items} & F &::=& T \mid \{\{e\}\} \mid F \; J \; \mt{JOIN} \; F \; \mt{ON} \; E \\
adamc@1085	2282 &&& \mid F \; \mt{CROSS} \; \mt{JOIN} \ F \\
adam@2031	2283 &&& \mid (Q) \; \mt{AS} \; t \mid (\{\{e\}\}) \; \mt{AS} \; t \\
adamc@1085	2284 \textrm{Joins} & J &::=& [\mt{INNER}] \\
adamc@1085	2285 &&& \mid [\mt{LEFT} \mid \mt{RIGHT} \mid \mt{FULL}] \; [\mt{OUTER}] \\
adam@1587	2286 \textrm{SQL expressions} & E &::=& t.f & \textrm{column references} \\
adamc@549	2287 &&& X & \textrm{named expression references} \\
adam@1490	2288 &&& \{[e]\} & \textrm{injected native Ur expressions} \\
adam@1778	2289 &&& \{e\} & \textrm{computed expressions, probably using $\mt{sql\_exp}$ directly} \\
adamc@549	2290 &&& \mt{TRUE} \mid \mt{FALSE} & \textrm{boolean constants} \\
adamc@549	2291 &&& \ell & \textrm{primitive type literals} \\
adamc@549	2292 &&& \mt{NULL} & \textrm{null value (injection of $\mt{None}$)} \\
adamc@549	2293 &&& E \; \mt{IS} \; \mt{NULL} & \textrm{nullness test} \\
adam@1602	2294 &&& \mt{COALESCE}(E, E) & \textrm{take first non-null value} \\
adamc@549	2295 &&& n & \textrm{nullary operators} \\
adamc@549	2296 &&& u \; E & \textrm{unary operators} \\
adamc@549	2297 &&& E \; b \; E & \textrm{binary operators} \\
adam@1778	2298 &&& \mt{COUNT}(\ast) & \textrm{count number of rows} \\
adam@1778	2299 &&& a(E) & \textrm{other aggregate function} \\
adam@1573	2300 &&& \mt{IF} \; E \; \mt{THEN} \; E \; \mt{ELSE} \; E & \textrm{conditional} \\
adam@1778	2301 &&& (Q) & \textrm{subquery (must return a single expression column)} \\
adamc@549	2302 &&& (E) & \textrm{explicit precedence} \\
adamc@549	2303 \textrm{Nullary operators} & n &::=& \mt{CURRENT\_TIMESTAMP} \\
adamc@549	2304 \textrm{Unary operators} & u &::=& \mt{NOT} \\
adam@1688	2305 \textrm{Binary operators} & b &::=& \mt{AND} \mid \mt{OR} \mid = \mid \neq \mid < \mid \leq \mid > \mid \geq \\
adamc@1188	2306 \textrm{Aggregate functions} & a &::=& \mt{COUNT} \mid \mt{AVG} \mid \mt{SUM} \mid \mt{MIN} \mid \mt{MAX} \\
adam@1543	2307 \textrm{Directions} & o &::=& \mt{ASC} \mid \mt{DESC} \mid \{e\} \\
adamc@549	2308 \textrm{SQL integer} & N &::=& n \mid \{e\} \\
adam@1778	2309 \textrm{Windowable expressions} & \hat{E} &::=& E \\
adam@1778	2310 &&& w \; [\mt{OVER} \; ( & \textrm{(Postgres only)} \\
adam@1778	2311 &&& \hspace{.1in} [\mt{PARTITION} \; \mt{BY} \; E] \\
adam@1778	2312 &&& \hspace{.1in} [\mt{ORDER} \; \mt{BY} \; O])] \\
adam@1778	2313 \textrm{Window function} & w &::=& \mt{RANK}() \\
adam@1778	2314 &&& \mt{COUNT}(*) \\
adam@1778	2315 &&& a(E)
adamc@549	2316 \end{array}$$
adamc@549	2317
adamc@1085	2318 Additionally, an SQL expression may be inserted into normal Ur code with the syntax $(\mt{SQL} \; E)$ or $(\mt{WHERE} \; E)$. Similar shorthands exist for other nonterminals, with the prefix $\mt{FROM}$ for $\mt{FROM}$ items and $\mt{SELECT1}$ for pre-queries.
adamc@549	2319
adam@1683	2320 Unnamed expression columns in $\mt{SELECT}$ clauses are assigned consecutive natural numbers, starting with 1. Any expression in a $p$ position that is enclosed in parentheses is treated as an expression column, rather than a column pulled directly out of a table, even if it is only a field projection. (This distinction affects the record type used to describe query results.)
adamc@1194	2321
adamc@550	2322 \subsubsection{DML}
adamc@550	2323
adamc@550	2324 DML commands $D$ are added to the rules for expressions $e$.
adamc@550	2325
adamc@550	2326 $$\begin{array}{rrcll}
adamc@550	2327 \textrm{Commands} & D &::=& (\mt{INSERT} \; \mt{INTO} \; T^E \; (f,^+) \; \mt{VALUES} \; (E,^+)) \\
adamc@550	2328 &&& (\mt{UPDATE} \; T^E \; \mt{SET} \; (f = E,)^+ \; \mt{WHERE} \; E) \\
adamc@550	2329 &&& (\mt{DELETE} \; \mt{FROM} \; T^E \; \mt{WHERE} \; E) \\
adamc@550	2330 \textrm{Table expressions} & T^E &::=& x \mid \{\{e\}\}
adamc@550	2331 \end{array}$$
adamc@550	2332
adamc@550	2333 Inside $\mt{UPDATE}$ and $\mt{DELETE}$ commands, lone variables $X$ are interpreted as references to columns of the implicit table $\mt{T}$, rather than to named expressions.
adamc@549	2334
adamc@551	2335 \subsection{XML}
adamc@551	2336
adamc@551	2337 XML fragments $L$ are added to the rules for expressions $e$.
adamc@551	2338
adamc@551	2339 $$\begin{array}{rrcll}
adamc@551	2340 \textrm{XML fragments} & L &::=& \texttt{<xml/>} \mid \texttt{<xml>}l^*\texttt{</xml>} \\
adamc@551	2341 \textrm{XML pieces} & l &::=& \textrm{text} & \textrm{cdata} \\
adamc@551	2342 &&& \texttt{<}g\texttt{/>} & \textrm{tag with no children} \\
adamc@551	2343 &&& \texttt{<}g\texttt{>}l^*\texttt{</}x\texttt{>} & \textrm{tag with children} \\
adamc@559	2344 &&& \{e\} & \textrm{computed XML fragment} \\
adamc@559	2345 &&& \{[e]\} & \textrm{injection of an Ur expression, via the $\mt{Top}.\mt{txt}$ function} \\
adamc@551	2346 \textrm{Tag} & g &::=& h \; (x = v)^* \\
adamc@551	2347 \textrm{Tag head} & h &::=& x & \textrm{tag name} \\
adamc@551	2348 &&& h\{c\} & \textrm{constructor parameter} \\
adamc@551	2349 \textrm{Attribute value} & v &::=& \ell & \textrm{literal value} \\
adamc@551	2350 &&& \{e\} & \textrm{computed value} \\
adamc@551	2351 \end{array}$$
adamc@551	2352
adam@1751	2353 Further, there is a special convenience and compatibility form for setting CSS classes of tags. If a \cd{class} attribute has a value that is a string literal, the literal is parsed in the usual HTML way and replaced with calls to appropriate Ur/Web combinators. Any dashes in the text are replaced with underscores to determine Ur identifiers. The same desugaring can be accessed in a normal expression context by calling the pseudo-function \cd{CLASS} on a string literal.
adam@1751	2354
adam@1751	2355 Similar support is provided for \cd{style} attributes. Normal CSS syntax may be used in string literals that are \cd{style} attribute values, and the desugaring may be accessed elsewhere with the pseudo-function \cd{STYLE}.
adamc@552	2356
adamc@1198	2357 \section{\label{structure}The Structure of Web Applications}
adamc@553	2358
adam@1797	2359 A web application is built from a series of modules, with one module, the last one appearing in the \texttt{.urp} file, designated as the main module. The signature of the main module determines the URL entry points to the application. Such an entry point should have type $\mt{t1} \to \ldots \to \mt{tn} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{page}$, for any integer $n \geq 0$, where $\mt{page}$ is a type synonym for top-level HTML pages, defined in $\mt{Basis}$. If such a function is at the top level of main module $M$, with $n = 0$, it will be accessible at URI \texttt{/M/f}, and so on for more deeply nested functions, as described in Section \ref{tag} below. See Section \ref{cl} for information on the \texttt{prefix} and \texttt{rewrite url} directives, which can be used to rewrite the default URIs of different entry point functions. The final URL of a function is its default module-based URI, with \texttt{rewrite url} rules applied, and with the \texttt{prefix} prepended. Arguments to an entry-point function are deserialized from the part of the URI following \texttt{f}.
adamc@553	2360
adam@1532	2361 Elements of modules beside the main module, including page handlers, will only be included in the final application if they are transitive dependencies of the handlers in the main module.
adam@1532	2362
adam@1787	2363 Normal links are accessible via HTTP \texttt{GET}, which the relevant standard says should never cause side effects. To export a page which may cause side effects, accessible only via HTTP \texttt{POST}, include one argument of the page handler of type $\mt{Basis.postBody}$. When the handler is called, this argument will receive a value that can be deconstructed into a MIME type (with $\mt{Basis.postType}$) and payload (with $\mt{Basis.postData}$). This kind of handler should not be used with forms that exist solely within Ur/Web apps; for these, use Ur/Web's built-in support, as described below. It may still be useful to use $\mt{Basis.postBody}$ with form requests submitted by code outside an Ur/Web app. For such cases, the function $\mt{Top.postFields} : \mt{postBody} \to \mt{list} \; (\mt{string} \times \mt{string})$ may be useful, breaking a \texttt{POST} body of type \texttt{application/x-www-form-urlencoded} into its name-value pairs.
adam@1347	2364
adam@1370	2365 Any normal page handler may also include arguments of type $\mt{option \; Basis.queryString}$, which will be handled specially. Rather than being deserialized from the current URI, such an argument is passed the whole query string that the handler received. The string may be analyzed by calling $\mt{Basis.show}$ on it. A handler of this kind may be passed as an argument to $\mt{Basis.effectfulUrl}$ to generate a URL to a page that may be used as a ``callback'' by an external service, such that the handler is allowed to cause side effects.
adam@1370	2366
adamc@553	2367 When the standalone web server receives a request for a known page, it calls the function for that page, ``running'' the resulting transaction to produce the page to return to the client. Pages link to other pages with the \texttt{link} attribute of the \texttt{a} HTML tag. A link has type $\mt{transaction} \; \mt{page}$, and the semantics of a link are that this transaction should be run to compute the result page, when the link is followed. Link targets are assigned URL names in the same way as top-level entry points.
adamc@553	2368
adamc@553	2369 HTML forms are handled in a similar way. The $\mt{action}$ attribute of a $\mt{submit}$ form tag takes a value of type $\$\mt{use} \to \mt{transaction} \; \mt{page}$, where $\mt{use}$ is a kind-$\{\mt{Type}\}$ record of the form fields used by this action handler. Action handlers are assigned URL patterns in the same way as above.
adamc@553	2370
adam@1653	2371 For both links and actions, direct arguments and local variables mentioned implicitly via closures are automatically included in serialized form in URLs, in the order in which they appear in the source code. Such serialized values may only be drawn from a limited set of types, and programs will fail to compile when the (implicit or explicit) arguments of page handler functions involve disallowed types. (Keep in mind that every free variable of a function is an implicit argument if it was not defined at the top level of a module.) For instance:
adam@1653	2372 \begin{itemize}
adam@1653	2373 \item Functions are disallowed, since there is no obvious way to serialize them safely.
adam@1653	2374 \item XML fragments are disallowed, since it is unclear how to check client-provided XML to be sure it doesn't break the HTML invariants of the application (for instance, by mutating the DOM in the conventional way, interfering with Ur/Web's functional-reactive regime).
adam@1653	2375 \item Blobs (``files'') are disallowed, since they can easily have very large serializations that could not fit within most web servers' URL size limits. (And you probably don't want to be serializing, e.g., image files in URLs, anyway.)
adam@1653	2376 \end{itemize}
adamc@553	2377
adamc@660	2378 Ur/Web programs generally mix server- and client-side code in a fairly transparent way. The one important restriction is that mixed client-server code must encapsulate all server-side pieces within named functions. This is because execution of such pieces will be implemented by explicit calls to the remote web server, and it is useful to get the programmer's help in designing the interface to be used. For example, this makes it easier to allow a client running an old version of an application to continue interacting with a server that has been upgraded to a new version, if the programmer took care to keep the interfaces of all of the old remote calls the same. The functions implementing these services are assigned names in the same way as normal web entry points, by using module structure.
adamc@660	2379
adamc@789	2380 \medskip
adamc@789	2381
adam@1347	2382 The HTTP standard suggests that GET requests only be used in ways that generate no side effects. Side effecting operations should use POST requests instead. The Ur/Web compiler enforces this rule strictly, via a simple conservative program analysis. Any page that may have a side effect must be accessed through a form, all of which use POST requests, or via a direct call to a page handler with some argument of type $\mt{Basis.postBody}$. A page is judged to have a side effect if its code depends syntactically on any of the side-effecting, server-side FFI functions. Links, forms, and most client-side event handlers are not followed during this syntactic traversal, but \texttt{<body onload=\{...\}>} handlers \emph{are} examined, since they run right away and could just as well be considered parts of main page handlers.
adamc@789	2383
adamc@789	2384 Ur/Web includes a kind of automatic protection against cross site request forgery attacks. Whenever any page execution can have side effects and can also read at least one cookie value, all cookie values must be signed cryptographically, to ensure that the user has come to the current page by submitting a form on a real page generated by the proper server. Signing and signature checking are inserted automatically by the compiler. This prevents attacks like phishing schemes where users are directed to counterfeit pages with forms that submit to your application, where a user's cookies might be submitted without his knowledge, causing some undesired side effect.
adamc@789	2385
adam@1348	2386 \subsection{Tasks}
adam@1348	2387
adam@1348	2388 In many web applications, it's useful to run code at points other than requests from browsers. Ur/Web's \emph{task} mechanism facilitates this. A type family of \emph{task kinds} is in the standard library:
adam@1348	2389
adam@1348	2390 $$\begin{array}{l}
adam@1348	2391 \mt{con} \; \mt{task\_kind} :: \mt{Type} \to \mt{Type} \\
adam@1348	2392 \mt{val} \; \mt{initialize} : \mt{task\_kind} \; \mt{unit} \\
adam@1349	2393 \mt{val} \; \mt{clientLeaves} : \mt{task\_kind} \; \mt{client} \\
adam@1349	2394 \mt{val} \; \mt{periodic} : \mt{int} \to \mt{task\_kind} \; \mt{unit}
adam@1348	2395 \end{array}$$
adam@1348	2396
adam@1348	2397 A task kind names a particular extension point of generated applications, where the type parameter of a task kind describes which extra input data is available at that extension point. Add task code with the special declaration form $\mt{task} \; e_1 = e_2$, where $e_1$ is a task kind with data $\tau$, and $e_2$ is a function from $\tau$ to $\mt{transaction} \; \mt{unit}$.
adam@1348	2398
adam@1348	2399 The currently supported task kinds are:
adam@1348	2400 \begin{itemize}
adam@1349	2401 \item $\mt{initialize}$: Code that is run when the application starts up.
adam@1348	2402 \item $\mt{clientLeaves}$: Code that is run for each client that the runtime system decides has surfed away. When a request that generates a new client handle is aborted, that handle will still eventually be passed to $\mt{clientLeaves}$ task code, even though the corresponding browser was never informed of the client handle's existence. In other words, in general, $\mt{clientLeaves}$ handlers will be called more times than there are actual clients.
adam@1349	2403 \item $\mt{periodic} \; n$: Code that is run when the application starts up and then every $n$ seconds thereafter.
adam@1348	2404 \end{itemize}
adam@1348	2405
adamc@553	2406
adam@2008	2407 \section{\label{ffi}The Foreign Function Interface}
adamc@897	2408
adamc@897	2409 It is possible to call your own C and JavaScript code from Ur/Web applications, via the foreign function interface (FFI). The starting point for a new binding is a \texttt{.urs} signature file that presents your external library as a single Ur/Web module (with no nested modules). Compilation conventions map the types and values that you use into C and/or JavaScript types and values.
adamc@897	2410
adamc@897	2411 It is most convenient to encapsulate an FFI binding with a new \texttt{.urp} file, which applications can include with the \texttt{library} directive in their own \texttt{.urp} files. A number of directives are likely to show up in the library's project file.
adamc@897	2412
adamc@897	2413 \begin{itemize}
adamc@897	2414 \item \texttt{clientOnly Module.ident} registers a value as being allowed only in client-side code.
adamc@897	2415 \item \texttt{clientToServer Module.ident} declares a type as OK to marshal between clients and servers. By default, abstract FFI types are not allowed to be marshalled, since your library might be maintaining invariants that the simple serialization code doesn't check.
adam@1878	2416 \item \texttt{effectful Module.ident} registers a function that can have side effects. This is the default for \texttt{transaction}-based types, and, actually, this directive is mostly present for legacy compatibility reasons, since it used to be required explicitly for each \texttt{transaction}al function.
adamc@897	2417 \item \texttt{ffi FILE.urs} names the file giving your library's signature. You can include multiple such files in a single \texttt{.urp} file, and each file \texttt{mod.urp} defines an FFI module \texttt{Mod}.
adamc@1099	2418 \item \texttt{include FILE} requests inclusion of a C header file.
adamc@897	2419 \item \texttt{jsFunc Module.ident=name} gives a mapping from an Ur name for a value to a JavaScript name.
adamc@897	2420 \item \texttt{link FILE} requests that \texttt{FILE} be linked into applications. It should be a C object or library archive file, and you are responsible for generating it with your own build process.
adamc@897	2421 \item \texttt{script URL} requests inclusion of a JavaScript source file within application HTML.
adamc@897	2422 \item \texttt{serverOnly Module.ident} registers a value as being allowed only in server-side code.
adamc@897	2423 \end{itemize}
adamc@897	2424
adamc@897	2425 \subsection{Writing C FFI Code}
adamc@897	2426
adam@1881	2427 C source files connecting to the Ur/Web FFI should include \texttt{urweb.h}, and C++ source files should include \texttt{urweb\_cpp.h}.
adam@1881	2428
adamc@897	2429 A server-side FFI type or value \texttt{Module.ident} must have a corresponding type or value definition \texttt{uw\_Module\_ident} in C code. With the current Ur/Web version, it's not generally possible to work with Ur records or complex datatypes in C code, but most other kinds of types are fair game.
adamc@897	2430
adamc@897	2431 \begin{itemize}
adam@1881	2432 \item Primitive types defined in \texttt{Basis} are themselves using the standard FFI interface, so you may refer to them like \texttt{uw\_Basis\_t}. See \texttt{include/urweb/types.h} for their definitions.
adamc@897	2433 \item Enumeration datatypes, which have only constructors that take no arguments, should be defined using C \texttt{enum}s. The type is named as for any other type identifier, and each constructor \texttt{c} gets an enumeration constant named \texttt{uw\_Module\_c}.
adamc@897	2434 \item A datatype \texttt{dt} (such as \texttt{Basis.option}) that has one non-value-carrying constructor \texttt{NC} and one value-carrying constructor \texttt{C} gets special treatment. Where \texttt{T} is the type of \texttt{C}'s argument, and where we represent \texttt{T} as \texttt{t} in C, we represent \texttt{NC} with \texttt{NULL}. The representation of \texttt{C} depends on whether we're sure that we don't need to use \texttt{NULL} to represent \texttt{t} values; this condition holds only for strings and complex datatypes. For such types, \texttt{C v} is represented with the C encoding of \texttt{v}, such that the translation of \texttt{dt} is \texttt{t}. For other types, \texttt{C v} is represented with a pointer to the C encoding of v, such that the translation of \texttt{dt} is \texttt{t*}.
adam@1686	2435 \item Ur/Web involves many types of program syntax, such as for HTML and SQL code. All of these types are implemented with normal C strings, and you may take advantage of that encoding to manipulate code as strings in C FFI code. Be mindful that, in writing such code, it is your responsibility to maintain the appropriate code invariants, or you may reintroduce the code injection vulnerabilities that Ur/Web rules out. The most convenient way to extend Ur/Web with functions that, e.g., use natively unsupported HTML tags is to generate the HTML code with the FFI.
adamc@897	2436 \end{itemize}
adamc@897	2437
adam@1881	2438 The C FFI version of a Ur function with type \texttt{T1 -> ... -> TN -> R} or \texttt{T1 -> ... -> TN -> transaction R} has a C prototype like \texttt{R uw\_Module\_ident(uw\_context, T1, ..., TN)}. Only functions with types of the second form may have side effects. \texttt{uw\_context} is the type of state that persists across handling a client request. Many functions that operate on contexts are prototyped in \texttt{include/urweb/urweb\_cpp.h}. Most should only be used internally by the compiler. A few are useful in general FFI implementation:
adamc@897	2439 \begin{itemize}
adamc@897	2440 \item \begin{verbatim}
adamc@897	2441 void uw_error(uw_context, failure_kind, const char *fmt, ...);
adamc@897	2442 \end{verbatim}
adamc@897	2443 Abort the current request processing, giving a \texttt{printf}-style format string and arguments for generating an error message. The \texttt{failure\_kind} argument can be \texttt{FATAL}, to abort the whole execution; \texttt{BOUNDED\_RETRY}, to try processing the request again from the beginning, but failing if this happens too many times; or \texttt{UNLIMITED\_RETRY}, to repeat processing, with no cap on how many times this can recur.
adamc@897	2444
adam@1329	2445 All pointers to the context-local heap (see description below of \texttt{uw\_malloc()}) become invalid at the start and end of any execution of a main entry point function of an application. For example, if the request handler is restarted because of a \texttt{uw\_error()} call with \texttt{BOUNDED\_RETRY} or for any other reason, it is unsafe to access any local heap pointers that may have been stashed somewhere beforehand.
adam@1329	2446
adamc@897	2447 \item \begin{verbatim}
adam@1469	2448 void uw_set_error_message(uw_context, const char *fmt, ...);
adam@1469	2449 \end{verbatim}
adam@1469	2450 This simpler form of \texttt{uw\_error()} saves an error message without immediately aborting execution.
adam@1469	2451
adam@1469	2452 \item \begin{verbatim}
adamc@897	2453 void uw_push_cleanup(uw_context, void (func)(void ), void *arg);
adamc@897	2454 void uw_pop_cleanup(uw_context);
adamc@897	2455 \end{verbatim}
adam@1329	2456 Manipulate a stack of actions that should be taken if any kind of error condition arises. Calling the ``pop'' function both removes an action from the stack and executes it. It is a bug to let a page request handler finish successfully with unpopped cleanup actions.
adam@1329	2457
adam@1329	2458 Pending cleanup actions aren't intended to have any complex relationship amongst themselves, so, upon request handler abort, pending actions are executed in first-in-first-out order.
adamc@897	2459
adamc@897	2460 \item \begin{verbatim}
adamc@897	2461 void *uw_malloc(uw_context, size_t);
adamc@897	2462 \end{verbatim}
adam@1329	2463 A version of \texttt{malloc()} that allocates memory inside a context's heap, which is managed with region allocation. Thus, there is no \texttt{uw\_free()}, but you need to be careful not to keep ad-hoc C pointers to this area of memory. In general, \texttt{uw\_malloc()}ed memory should only be used in ways compatible with the computation model of pure Ur. This means it is fine to allocate and return a value that could just as well have been built with core Ur code. In contrast, it is almost never safe to store \texttt{uw\_malloc()}ed pointers in global variables, including when the storage happens implicitly by registering a callback that would take the pointer as an argument.
adam@1329	2464
adam@1329	2465 For performance and correctness reasons, it is usually preferable to use \texttt{uw\_malloc()} instead of \texttt{malloc()}. The former manipulates a local heap that can be kept allocated across page requests, while the latter uses global data structures that may face contention during concurrent execution. However, we emphasize again that \texttt{uw\_malloc()} should never be used to implement some logic that couldn't be implemented trivially by a constant-valued expression in Ur.
adamc@897	2466
adamc@897	2467 \item \begin{verbatim}
adamc@897	2468 typedef void (uw_callback)(void );
adam@1328	2469 typedef void (uw_callback_with_retry)(void , int will_retry);
adam@2001	2470 int uw_register_transactional(uw_context, void *data, uw_callback commit,
adam@2001	2471 uw_callback rollback, uw_callback_with_retry free);
adamc@897	2472 \end{verbatim}
adam@2001	2473 All side effects in Ur/Web programs need to be compatible with transactions, such that any set of actions can be undone at any time. Thus, you should not perform actions with non-local side effects directly; instead, register handlers to be called when the current transaction is committed or rolled back. The arguments here give an arbitary piece of data to be passed to callbacks, a function to call on commit, a function to call on rollback, and a function to call afterward in either case to clean up any allocated resources. A rollback handler may be called after the associated commit handler has already been called, if some later part of the commit process fails. A free handler is told whether the runtime system expects to retry the current page request after rollback finishes. The return value of \texttt{uw\_register\_transactional()} is 0 on success and nonzero on failure (where failure currently only happens when exceeding configured limits on number of transactionals).
adamc@897	2474
adam@2000	2475 Any of the callbacks may be \texttt{NULL}. To accommodate some stubbornly non-transactional real-world actions like sending an e-mail message, Ur/Web treats \texttt{NULL} \texttt{rollback} callbacks specially. When a transaction commits, all \texttt{commit} actions that have non-\texttt{NULL} rollback actions are tried before any \texttt{commit} actions that have \texttt{NULL} rollback actions. Furthermore, an SQL \texttt{COMMIT} is also attempted in between the two phases, so the nicely transactional actions have a chance to influence whether data are committed to the database, while \texttt{NULL}-rollback actions only get run in the first place after committing data. The reason for all this is that it is \emph{expected} that concurrency interactions will cause database commits to fail in benign ways that call for transaction restart. A truly non-undoable action should only be run after we are sure the database transaction will commit.
adamc@1085	2476
adam@1329	2477 When a request handler ends with multiple pending transactional actions, their handlers are run in a first-in-last-out stack-like order, wherever the order would otherwise be ambiguous.
adam@1329	2478
adam@1329	2479 It is not safe for any of these handlers to access a context-local heap through a pointer returned previously by \texttt{uw\_malloc()}, nor should any new calls to that function be made. Think of the context-local heap as meant for use by the Ur/Web code itself, while transactional handlers execute after the Ur/Web code has finished.
adam@1329	2480
adam@1469	2481 A handler may signal an error by calling \texttt{uw\_set\_error\_message()}, but it is not safe to call \texttt{uw\_error()} from a handler. Signaling an error in a commit handler will cause the runtime system to switch to aborting the transaction, immediately after the current commit handler returns.
adam@1469	2482
adamc@1085	2483 \item \begin{verbatim}
adamc@1085	2484 void uw_get_global(uw_context, char name);
adamc@1085	2485 void uw_set_global(uw_context, char name, void data, uw_callback free);
adamc@1085	2486 \end{verbatim}
adam@1329	2487 Different FFI-based extensions may want to associate their own pieces of data with contexts. The global interface provides a way of doing that, where each extension must come up with its own unique key. The \texttt{free} argument to \texttt{uw\_set\_global()} explains how to deallocate the saved data. It is never safe to store \texttt{uw\_malloc()}ed pointers in global variable slots.
adamc@1085	2488
adamc@897	2489 \end{itemize}
adamc@897	2490
adamc@897	2491 \subsection{Writing JavaScript FFI Code}
adamc@897	2492
adamc@897	2493 JavaScript is dynamically typed, so Ur/Web type definitions imply no JavaScript code. The JavaScript identifier for each FFI function is set with the \texttt{jsFunc} directive. Each identifier can be defined in any JavaScript file that you ask to include with the \texttt{script} directive.
adamc@897	2494
adamc@897	2495 In contrast to C FFI code, JavaScript FFI functions take no extra context argument. Their argument lists are as you would expect from their Ur types. Only functions whose ranges take the form \texttt{transaction T} should have side effects; the JavaScript ``return type'' of such a function is \texttt{T}. Here are the conventions for representing Ur values in JavaScript.
adamc@897	2496
adamc@897	2497 \begin{itemize}
adamc@897	2498 \item Integers, floats, strings, characters, and booleans are represented in the usual JavaScript way.
adam@1996	2499 \item Ur functions are represented in an unspecified way. This means that you should not rely on any details of function representation. Named FFI functions are represented as JavaScript functions with as many arguments as their Ur types specify. To call a non-FFI function \texttt{f} on argument \texttt{x}, run \texttt{execF(f, x)}. A normal JavaScript function may also be used in a position where the Ur/Web runtime system expects an Ur/Web function.
adamc@897	2500 \item An Ur record is represented with a JavaScript record, where Ur field name \texttt{N} translates to JavaScript field name \texttt{\_N}. An exception to this rule is that the empty record is encoded as \texttt{null}.
adamc@897	2501 \item \texttt{option}-like types receive special handling similar to their handling in C. The ``\texttt{None}'' constructor is \texttt{null}, and a use of the ``\texttt{Some}'' constructor on a value \texttt{v} is either \texttt{v}, if the underlying type doesn't need to use \texttt{null}; or \texttt{\{v:v\}} otherwise.
adamc@985	2502 \item Any other datatypes represent a non-value-carrying constructor \texttt{C} as \texttt{"C"} and an application of a constructor \texttt{C} to value \texttt{v} as \texttt{\{n:"C", v:v\}}. This rule only applies to datatypes defined in FFI module signatures; the compiler is free to optimize the representations of other, non-\texttt{option}-like datatypes in arbitrary ways.
adam@1686	2503 \item As in the C FFI, all abstract types of program syntax are implemented with strings in JavaScript.
adam@1996	2504 \item A value of Ur type \texttt{transaction t} is represented in the same way as for \texttt{unit -> t}. (Note that FFI functions skip this extra level of function encoding, which only applies to functions defined in Ur/Web.)
adamc@897	2505 \end{itemize}
adamc@897	2506
adam@1644	2507 It is possible to write JavaScript FFI code that interacts with the functional-reactive structure of a document. Here is a quick summary of some of the simpler functions to use; descriptions of fancier stuff may be added later on request (and such stuff should be considered ``undocumented features'' until then).
adam@1644	2508
adam@1644	2509 \begin{itemize}
adam@1644	2510 \item Sources should be treated as an abstract type, manipulated via:
adam@1644	2511 \begin{itemize}
adam@1644	2512 \item \cd{sc(v)}, to create a source initialized to \cd{v}
adam@1644	2513 \item \cd{sg(s)}, to retrieve the current value of source \cd{s}
adam@1644	2514 \item \cd{sv(s, v)}, to set source \cd{s} to value \cd{v}
adam@1644	2515 \end{itemize}
adam@1644	2516
adam@1644	2517 \item Signals should be treated as an abstract type, manipulated via:
adam@1644	2518 \begin{itemize}
adam@1644	2519 \item \cd{sr(v)} and \cd{sb(s, f)}, the ``return'' and ``bind'' monad operators, respectively
adam@1644	2520 \item \cd{ss(s)}, to produce the signal corresponding to source \cd{s}
adam@1644	2521 \item \cd{scur(s)}, to get the current value of signal \cd{s}
adam@1644	2522 \end{itemize}
adam@1644	2523
adam@1644	2524 \item The behavior of the \cd{<dyn>} pseudo-tag may be mimicked by following the right convention in a piece of HTML source code with a type like $\mt{xbody}$. Such a piece of source code may be encoded with a JavaScript string. To insert a dynamic section, include a \cd{<script>} tag whose content is just a call \cd{dyn(pnode, s)}. The argument \cd{pnode} specifies what the relevant enclosing parent tag is. Use value \cd{"tr"} when the immediate parent is \cd{<tr>}, use \cd{"table"} when the immediate parent is \cd{<table>}, and use \cd{"span"} otherwise. The argument \cd{s} is a string-valued signal giving the HTML code to be inserted at this point. As with the usual \cd{<dyn>} tag, that HTML subtree is automatically updated as the value of \cd{s} changes.
adam@1644	2525
adam@1702	2526 \item There is only one supported method of taking HTML values generated in Ur/Web code and adding them to the DOM in FFI JavaScript code: call \cd{setInnerHTML(node, html)} to add HTML content \cd{html} within DOM node \cd{node}. Merely running \cd{node.innerHTML = html} is not guaranteed to get the job done, though programmers familiar with JavaScript will probably find it useful to think of \cd{setInnerHTML} as having this effect. The unusual idiom is required because Ur/Web uses a nonstandard representation of HTML, to support infinite nesting of code that may generate code that may generate code that.... The \cd{node} value must already be in the DOM tree at the point when \cd{setInnerHTML} is called, because some plumbing must be set up to interact sensibly with \cd{<dyn>} tags.
adam@1702	2527
adam@1644	2528 \item It is possible to use the more standard ``IDs and mutation'' style of JavaScript coding, though that style is unidiomatic for Ur/Web and should be avoided wherever possible. Recall the abstract type $\mt{id}$ and its constructor $\mt{fresh}$, which can be used to generate new unique IDs in Ur/Web code. Values of this type are represented as strings in JavaScript, and a function \cd{fresh()} is available to generate new unique IDs. Application-specific ID generation schemes may cause bad interactions with Ur/Web code that also generates IDs, so the recommended approach is to produce IDs only via calls to \cd{fresh()}. FFI code shouldn't depend on the ID generation scheme (on either server side or client side), but it is safe to include these IDs in tag attributes (in either server-side or client-side code) and manipulate the associated DOM nodes in the standard way (in client-side code). Be forewarned that this kind of imperative DOM manipulation may confuse the Ur/Web runtime system and interfere with proper behavior of tags like \cd{<dyn>}!
adam@1644	2529 \end{itemize}
adamc@897	2530
adam@1833	2531 \subsection{Introducing New HTML Tags}
adam@1833	2532
adam@1833	2533 FFI modules may introduce new tags as values with $\mt{Basis.tag}$ types. See \texttt{basis.urs} for examples of how tags are declared. The identifier of a tag value is used as its rendering in HTML. The Ur/Web syntax sugar for XML literals desugars each use of a tag into a reference to an identifier with the same name. There is no need to provide implementations (i.e., in C or JavaScript code) for such identifiers.
adam@1833	2534
adam@1833	2535 The onus is on the coder of a new tag's interface to think about consequences for code injection attacks, messing with the DOM in ways that may break Ur/Web reactive programming, etc.
adam@1833	2536
adam@2010	2537 \subsection{The Less Safe FFI}
adam@2010	2538
adam@2010	2539 An alternative interface is provided for declaring FFI functions inline within normal Ur/Web modules. This facility must be opted into with the \texttt{lessSafeFfi} \texttt{.urp} directive, since it breaks a crucial property, allowing code in a \texttt{.ur} file to break basic invariants of the Ur/Web type system. Without this option, one only needs to audit \texttt{.urp} files to be sure an application obeys the type-system rules. The alternative interface may be more convenient for such purposes as declaring an FFI function typed in terms of some type local to a module.
adam@2010	2540
adam@2010	2541 When the less safe mode is enabled, declarations like this one are accepted, at the top level of a \texttt{.ur} file:
adam@2010	2542 \begin{verbatim}
adam@2010	2543 ffi foo : int -> int
adam@2010	2544 \end{verbatim}
adam@2010	2545
adam@2010	2546 Now \texttt{foo} is available as a normal function. If called in server-side code, and if the above declaration appeared in \texttt{bar.ur}, the C function will be linked as \texttt{uw\_Bar\_foo()}. It is also possible to declare an FFI function to be implemented in JavaScript, using a general facility for including modifiers in an FFI declaration. The modifiers appear before the colon, separated by spaces. Here are the available ones, which have the same semantics as corresponding \texttt{.urp} directives.
adam@2010	2547 \begin{itemize}
adam@2010	2548 \item \texttt{effectful}
adam@2010	2549 \item \texttt{benignEffectful}
adam@2010	2550 \item \texttt{clientOnly}
adam@2010	2551 \item \texttt{serverOnly}
adam@2010	2552 \item \texttt{jsFunc "putJsFuncNameHere"}
adam@2010	2553 \end{itemize}
adam@2010	2554
adamc@897	2555
adamc@552	2556 \section{Compiler Phases}
adamc@552	2557
adamc@552	2558 The Ur/Web compiler is unconventional in that it relies on a kind of \emph{heuristic compilation}. Not all valid programs will compile successfully. Informally, programs fail to compile when they are ``too higher order.'' Compiler phases do their best to eliminate different kinds of higher order-ness, but some programs just won't compile. This is a trade-off for producing very efficient executables. Compiled Ur/Web programs use native C representations and require no garbage collection.
adamc@552	2559
adamc@552	2560 In this section, we step through the main phases of compilation, noting what consequences each phase has for effective programming.
adamc@552	2561
adamc@552	2562 \subsection{Parse}
adamc@552	2563
adamc@552	2564 The compiler reads a \texttt{.urp} file, figures out which \texttt{.urs} and \texttt{.ur} files it references, and combines them all into what is conceptually a single sequence of declarations in the core language of Section \ref{core}.
adamc@552	2565
adamc@552	2566 \subsection{Elaborate}
adamc@552	2567
adamc@552	2568 This is where type inference takes place, translating programs into an explicit form with no more wildcards. This phase is the most likely source of compiler error messages.
adamc@552	2569
adam@1378	2570 Those crawling through the compiler source will also want to be aware of another compiler phase, Explify, that occurs immediately afterward. This phase just translates from an AST language that includes unification variables to a very similar language that doesn't; all variables should have been determined by the end of Elaborate, anyway. The new AST language also drops some features that are used only for static checking and that have no influence on runtime behavior, like disjointness constraints.
adam@1378	2571
adamc@552	2572 \subsection{Unnest}
adamc@552	2573
adamc@552	2574 Named local function definitions are moved to the top level, to avoid the need to generate closures.
adamc@552	2575
adamc@552	2576 \subsection{Corify}
adamc@552	2577
adamc@552	2578 Module system features are compiled away, through inlining of functor definitions at application sites. Afterward, most abstraction boundaries are broken, facilitating optimization.
adamc@552	2579
adamc@552	2580 \subsection{Especialize}
adamc@552	2581
adam@1356	2582 Functions are specialized to particular argument patterns. This is an important trick for avoiding the need to maintain any closures at runtime. Currently, specialization only happens for prefixes of a function's full list of parameters, so you may need to take care to put arguments of function types before other arguments. The optimizer will not be effective enough if you use arguments that mix functions and values that must be calculated at run-time. For instance, a tuple of a function and an integer counter would not lead to successful code generation; these should be split into separate arguments via currying.
adamc@552	2583
adamc@552	2584 \subsection{Untangle}
adamc@552	2585
adam@1797	2586 Remove unnecessary mutual recursion, splitting recursive groups into strongly connected components.
adamc@552	2587
adamc@552	2588 \subsection{Shake}
adamc@552	2589
adamc@552	2590 Remove all definitions not needed to run the page handlers that are visible in the signature of the last module listed in the \texttt{.urp} file.
adamc@552	2591
adamc@661	2592 \subsection{Rpcify}
adamc@661	2593
adamc@661	2594 Pieces of code are determined to be client-side, server-side, neither, or both, by figuring out which standard library functions might be needed to execute them. Calls to server-side functions (e.g., $\mt{query}$) within mixed client-server code are identified and replaced with explicit remote calls. Some mixed functions may be converted to continuation-passing style to facilitate this transformation.
adamc@661	2595
adamc@661	2596 \subsection{Untangle, Shake}
adamc@661	2597
adamc@661	2598 Repeat these simplifications.
adamc@661	2599
adamc@553	2600 \subsection{\label{tag}Tag}
adamc@552	2601
adamc@552	2602 Assign a URL name to each link and form action. It is important that these links and actions are written as applications of named functions, because such names are used to generate URL patterns. A URL pattern has a name built from the full module path of the named function, followed by the function name, with all pieces separated by slashes. The path of a functor application is based on the name given to the result, rather than the path of the functor itself.
adamc@552	2603
adamc@552	2604 \subsection{Reduce}
adamc@552	2605
adamc@552	2606 Apply definitional equality rules to simplify the program as much as possible. This effectively includes inlining of every non-recursive definition.
adamc@552	2607
adamc@552	2608 \subsection{Unpoly}
adamc@552	2609
adamc@552	2610 This phase specializes polymorphic functions to the specific arguments passed to them in the program. If the program contains real polymorphic recursion, Unpoly will be insufficient to avoid later error messages about too much polymorphism.
adamc@552	2611
adamc@552	2612 \subsection{Specialize}
adamc@552	2613
adamc@558	2614 Replace uses of parameterized datatypes with versions specialized to specific parameters. As for Unpoly, this phase will not be effective enough in the presence of polymorphic recursion or other fancy uses of impredicative polymorphism.
adamc@552	2615
adamc@552	2616 \subsection{Shake}
adamc@552	2617
adamc@558	2618 Here the compiler repeats the earlier Shake phase.
adamc@552	2619
adamc@552	2620 \subsection{Monoize}
adamc@552	2621
adamc@552	2622 Programs are translated to a new intermediate language without polymorphism or non-$\mt{Type}$ constructors. Error messages may pop up here if earlier phases failed to remove such features.
adamc@552	2623
adamc@552	2624 This is the stage at which concrete names are generated for cookies, tables, and sequences. They are named following the same convention as for links and actions, based on module path information saved from earlier stages. Table and sequence names separate path elements with underscores instead of slashes, and they are prefixed by \texttt{uw\_}.
adamc@664	2625
adamc@552	2626 \subsection{MonoOpt}
adamc@552	2627
adamc@552	2628 Simple algebraic laws are applied to simplify the program, focusing especially on efficient imperative generation of HTML pages.
adamc@552	2629
adamc@552	2630 \subsection{MonoUntangle}
adamc@552	2631
adamc@552	2632 Unnecessary mutual recursion is broken up again.
adamc@552	2633
adamc@552	2634 \subsection{MonoReduce}
adamc@552	2635
adamc@552	2636 Equivalents of the definitional equality rules are applied to simplify programs, with inlining again playing a major role.
adamc@552	2637
adamc@552	2638 \subsection{MonoShake, MonoOpt}
adamc@552	2639
adamc@552	2640 Unneeded declarations are removed, and basic optimizations are repeated.
adamc@552	2641
adamc@552	2642 \subsection{Fuse}
adamc@552	2643
adamc@552	2644 The compiler tries to simplify calls to recursive functions whose results are immediately written as page output. The write action is pushed inside the function definitions to avoid allocation of intermediate results.
adamc@552	2645
adamc@552	2646 \subsection{MonoUntangle, MonoShake}
adamc@552	2647
adamc@552	2648 Fuse often creates more opportunities to remove spurious mutual recursion.
adamc@552	2649
adamc@552	2650 \subsection{Pathcheck}
adamc@552	2651
adamc@552	2652 The compiler checks that no link or action name has been used more than once.
adamc@552	2653
adamc@552	2654 \subsection{Cjrize}
adamc@552	2655
adamc@552	2656 The program is translated to what is more or less a subset of C. If any use of functions as data remains at this point, the compiler will complain.
adamc@552	2657
adamc@552	2658 \subsection{C Compilation and Linking}
adamc@552	2659
adam@1523	2660 The output of the last phase is pretty-printed as C source code and passed to the C compiler.
adamc@552	2661
adamc@552	2662
as@1564	2663 \end{document}

Mercurial > urweb

annotate doc/manual.tex @ 2031:d11a7a9c4a73